Cytochrome P450 2C9 is a protein

Protein

Proteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of...

 that in humans is encoded by the CYP2C9 gene

Gene

A gene is a molecular unit of heredity of a living organism. It is a name given to some stretches of DNA and RNA that code for a type of protein or for an RNA chain that has a function in the organism. Living beings depend on genes, as they specify all proteins and functional RNA chains...

.

Function

CYP2C9 is an important cytochrome P450 enzyme with a major role in the oxidation of both xenobiotic and endogenous compounds. CYP2C9 makes up about 18% of the cytochrome P450 protein in liver microsomes. Some 100 therapeutic drugs are metabolized by CYP2C9, including drugs with a narrow therapeutic index such as warfarin

Warfarin

Warfarin is an anticoagulant. It is most likely to be the drug popularly referred to as a "blood thinner," yet this is a misnomer, since it does not affect the thickness or viscosity of blood...

 and phenytoin

Phenytoin

Phenytoin sodium is a commonly used antiepileptic. Phenytoin acts to suppress the abnormal brain activity seen in seizure by reducing electrical conductance among brain cells by stabilizing the inactive state of voltage-gated sodium channels...

 and other routinely prescribed drugs such as acenocoumarol

Acenocoumarol

Acenocoumarol is an anticoagulant that functions as a vitamin K antagonist . It is a derivative of coumarin and is marketed under the brand names Sintrom and Sinthrome.- Dosage :...

, tolbutamide

Tolbutamide

Tolbutamide is a first generation potassium channel blocker, sulfonylurea oral hypoglycemic drug sold under the brand name Orinase. This drug may be used in the management of type II diabetes if diet alone is not effective. Tolbutamide stimulates the secretion of insulin by the pancreas...

, losartan

Losartan

Losartan is an angiotensin II receptor antagonist drug used mainly to treat high blood pressure . Losartan was the first angiotensin II receptor antagonist to be marketed. Losartan potassium is marketed by Merck & Co. Inc. under the trade name Cozaar...

, glipizide

Glipizide

Glipizide is an oral medium-to-long acting anti-diabetic drug from the sulfonylurea class. It is classified as a second generation sulfonylurea, which means that it undergoes enterohepatic circulation. The structure on the R2 group is a much larger cyclo or aromatic group compared to the 1st...

, and some nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. By contrast, the known extrahepatic CYP2C9 often metabolizes important endogenous compound such as arachidonic acid

Arachidonic acid

Arachidonic acid is a polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acid 20:4.It is the counterpart to the saturated arachidic acid found in peanut oil, Arachidonic acid (AA, sometimes ARA) is a polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acid 20:4(ω-6).It is the counterpart to the saturated arachidic acid found in peanut oil,...

 , 5-hydroxytryptamine, and linoleic acid

Linoleic acid

Linoleic acid is an unsaturated n-6 fatty acid. It is a colorless liquid at room temperature. In physiological literature, it has a lipid number of 18:2...

.

Pharmacogenomics

Genetic polymorphism exists for CYP2C9 expression because the CYP2C9 gene is highly polymorphic. More than 50 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) have been described in the regulatory and coding regions of the CYP2C9 gene, some of them are associated with reduced enzyme activity compared with wild type in vitro.

Multiple in vivo studies also show that several mutant CYP2C9 genotypes are associated with significant reduction of in metabolism and daily dose requirements of selected CYP2C9 substrate. In fact, adverse drug reactions (ADRs) often result from unanticipated changes in CYP2C9 enzyme activity secondary to genetic polymorphisms. Especially for CYP2C9 substrates such as warfarin and phenytoin, diminished metabolic capacity because of genetic polymorphisms or drug-drug interactions can lead to toxicity at normal therapeutic doses.

Allele frequencies(%) of CYP2C9 polymorphism

	African-American	Black-African	Pygmy	Asian	Caucasian
CYP2C9*2	2.9	0-4.3	0	0-0.1	8-19
CYP2C9*3	2.0	0-2.3	0	1.1-3.6	3.3-16.2
CYP2C9*5	0-1.7	0.8-1.8	ND	0	0
CYP2C9*6	0.6	2.7	ND	0	0
CYP2C9*7	0	0	6	0	0
CYP2C9*8	1.9	8.6	4	0	0
CYP2C9*9	13	15.7	22	0	0.3
CYP2C9*11	1.4-1.8	2.7	6	0	0.4-1.0
CYP2C9*13	ND	ND	ND	0.5-0.6	ND

CYP2C9 Ligands

Most inhibitors of CYP2C9 are competitive inhibitors. Noncompetitive inhibitors

Non-competitive inhibition

Non-competitive inhibition is a type of enzyme inhibition where the inhibitor reduces the activity of the enzyme, by binding not to the active site on the enzyme, but to a different site...

 of CYP2C9 include nifedipine

Nifedipine

Nifedipine is a dihydropyridine calcium channel blocker...

, tranylcypromine

Tranylcypromine

Tranylcypromine is a drug of the substituted phenethylamine and amphetamine classes which acts as a monoamine oxidase inhibitor —it is a non-selective and irreversible inhibitor of the enzyme monoamine oxidase...

, phenethyl isothiocyanate, medroxyprogesterone acetate and 6-hydroxyflavone

6-Hydroxyflavone

6-Hydroxyflavone is a flavone, a type of chemical compound. It is one of the noncompetitive inhibitors of cytochrome P450 2C9. It is reported in leaves of Barleria prionitis Linn. ....

. It was indicated that the noncompetitive binding site of 6-hydroxyflavone is the reported allosteric binding site of the CYP2C9 enzyme.

Following is a table of selected substrates, inducers

Enzyme induction and inhibition

Enzyme induction is a process in which a molecule induces the expression of an enzyme.Enzyme inhibition can refer to* the inhibition of the expression of the enzyme by another molecule...

 and inhibitors

Enzyme induction and inhibition

Enzyme induction is a process in which a molecule induces the expression of an enzyme.Enzyme inhibition can refer to* the inhibition of the expression of the enzyme by another molecule...

 of CYP2C9. Where classes of agents are listed, there may be exceptions within the class.

Inhibitors of CYP2C9 can be classified by their potency

Potency (pharmacology)

In the field of pharmacology, potency is a measure of drug activity expressed in terms of the amount required to produce an effect of given intensity. A highly potent drug evokes a larger response at low concentrations, while a drug of lower potency evokes a small response at low concentrations...

, such as:

• Strong being one that causes at least a 5-fold increase in the plasma AUC values, or more than 80% decrease in clearance
  Clearance (medicine)
  In medicine, the clearance is a measurement of the renal excretion ability. Although clearance may also involve other organs than the kidney, it is almost synonymous with renal clearance or renal plasma clearance. Each substance has a specific clearance that depends on its filtration characteristics...
  
  .
• Moderate being one that causes at least a 2-fold increase in the plasma AUC values, or 50-80% decrease in clearance.
• Weak being one that causes at least a 1.25-fold but less than 2-fold increase in the plasma AUC values, or 20-50% decrease in clearance.

Selected inducers, inhibitors and substrates of CYP2C9

Substrates	Inhibitors	Inducers
NSAIDs (analgesic Analgesic An analgesic is any member of the group of drugs used to relieve pain . The word analgesic derives from Greek an- and algos .... , antipyretic Antipyretic Antipyretics ; an-tee-pahy-ret-iks; from the Greek anti, against, and pyreticus, are drugs or herbs that reduce fever. Normally, they will not lower body temperature if one does not have a fever. Antipyretics cause the hypothalamus to override an interleukin-induced increase in temperature... , anti-inflammatory Anti-inflammatory Anti-inflammatory refers to the property of a substance or treatment that reduces inflammation. Anti-inflammatory drugs make up about half of analgesics, remedying pain by reducing inflammation as opposed to opioids, which affect the central nervous system.... ) celecoxib Celecoxib Celecoxib INN is a sulfa non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug and selective COX-2 inhibitor used in the treatment of osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, acute pain, painful menstruation and menstrual symptoms, and to reduce numbers of colon and rectum polyps in patients with familial... lornoxicam Lornoxicam Lornoxicam is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug of the oxicam class with analgesic , anti-inflammatory and antipyretic properties... diclofenac Diclofenac Diclofenac is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug taken to reduce inflammation and as an analgesic reducing pain in certain conditions.... ibuprofen Ibuprofen Ibuprofen is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug used for relief of symptoms of arthritis, fever, as an analgesic , especially where there is an inflammatory component, and dysmenorrhea.... naproxen Naproxen Naproxen sodium is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug commonly used for the reduction of pain, fever, inflammation and stiffness caused by conditions such as:... piroxicam Piroxicam Piroxicam is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug of the oxicam class used to relieve the symptoms of rheumatoid and osteoarthritis, primary dysmenorrhoea, postoperative pain; and act as an analgesic, especially where there is an inflammatory component... meloxicam Meloxicam Meloxicam is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug with analgesic and fever reducer effects. It is a derivative of oxicam, closely related to piroxicam, and falls in the enolic acid group of NSAIDs... suprofen Suprofen Suprofen is an NSAID marketed in a 1% solution under the trade name Profenal.-Uses:Suprofen was originally used as a tablet but has since been discontinued in that form. It is now used exclusively as a topical ophthalmic solution, typically to prevent miosis during and after ophthalmic surgery.... phenytoin Phenytoin Phenytoin sodium is a commonly used antiepileptic. Phenytoin acts to suppress the abnormal brain activity seen in seizure by reducing electrical conductance among brain cells by stabilizing the inactive state of voltage-gated sodium channels...  (antiepileptic) fluvastatin Fluvastatin Fluvastatin is a member of the drug class of statins, used to treat hypercholesterolemia and to prevent cardiovascular disease....  (statin Statin Statins are a class of drugs used to lower cholesterol levels by inhibiting the enzyme HMG-CoA reductase, which plays a central role in the production of cholesterol in the liver. Increased cholesterol levels have been associated with cardiovascular diseases, and statins are therefore used in the... ) sulfonylurea Sulfonylurea Sulfonylurea derivatives are a class of antidiabetic drugs that are used in the management of diabetes mellitus type 2. They act by increasing insulin release from the beta cells in the pancreas.-First generation:* Carbutamide... s (antidiabetic) glipizide Glipizide Glipizide is an oral medium-to-long acting anti-diabetic drug from the sulfonylurea class. It is classified as a second generation sulfonylurea, which means that it undergoes enterohepatic circulation. The structure on the R2 group is a much larger cyclo or aromatic group compared to the 1st... glibenclamide Glibenclamide Glibenclamide , also known as glyburide , is an antidiabetic drug in a class of medications known as sulfonylureas, closely related to sulfa drugs... glimepiride Glimepiride Glimepiride is a medium-to-long acting sulfonylurea anti-diabetic drug. It is marketed as Amaryl by Sanofi-Aventis and GLIMY by Dr.Reddy's Labs... tolbutamide Tolbutamide Tolbutamide is a first generation potassium channel blocker, sulfonylurea oral hypoglycemic drug sold under the brand name Orinase. This drug may be used in the management of type II diabetes if diet alone is not effective. Tolbutamide stimulates the secretion of insulin by the pancreas... glyburide angiotensin II receptor antagonists (in hypertension Hypertension Hypertension or high blood pressure is a cardiac chronic medical condition in which the systemic arterial blood pressure is elevated. What that means is that the heart is having to work harder than it should to pump the blood around the body. Blood pressure involves two measurements, systolic and... , diabetic nephropathy Diabetic nephropathy Diabetic nephropathy , also known as Kimmelstiel-Wilson syndrome, or nodular diabetic glomerulosclerosis and intercapillary glomerulonephritis, is a progressive kidney disease caused by angiopathy of capillaries in the kidney glomeruli. It is characterized by nephrotic syndrome and diffuse... , CHF Congestive heart failure Heart failure often called congestive heart failure is generally defined as the inability of the heart to supply sufficient blood flow to meet the needs of the body. Heart failure can cause a number of symptoms including shortness of breath, leg swelling, and exercise intolerance. The condition... ) irbesartan Irbesartan Irbesartan is an angiotensin II receptor antagonist used mainly for the treatment of hypertension. Irbesartan was developed by Sanofi Research... losartan Losartan Losartan is an angiotensin II receptor antagonist drug used mainly to treat high blood pressure . Losartan was the first angiotensin II receptor antagonist to be marketed. Losartan potassium is marketed by Merck & Co. Inc. under the trade name Cozaar... S-warfarin (anticoagulant Anticoagulant An anticoagulant is a substance that prevents coagulation of blood. A group of pharmaceuticals called anticoagulants can be used in vivo as a medication for thrombotic disorders. Some anticoagulants are used in medical equipment, such as test tubes, blood transfusion bags, and renal dialysis... ) miconazole Miconazole Miconazole is an imidazole antifungal agent, developed by Janssen Pharmaceutica, commonly applied topically to the skin or to mucus membranes to cure fungal infections. It works by inhibiting the synthesis of ergosterol, a critical component of fungal cell membranes...  (antifungal) sildenafil Sildenafil Sildenafil citrate, sold as Viagra, Revatio and under various other trade names, is a drug used to treat erectile dysfunction and pulmonary arterial hypertension . It was originally developed by British scientists and then brought to market by the US-based pharmaceutical company Pfizer...  (in erectile dysfunction Erectile dysfunction Erectile dysfunction is sexual dysfunction characterized by the inability to develop or maintain an erection of the penis during sexual performance.... ) terbinafine Terbinafine Terbinafine hydrochloride is a...  (antifungal) amitriptyline Amitriptyline Amitriptyline is a tricyclic antidepressant . It is the most widely used TCA and has at least equal efficacy against depression as the newer class of SSRIs...  (tricyclic antidepressant Tricyclic antidepressant Tricyclic antidepressants are heterocyclic chemical compounds used primarily as antidepressants. The TCAs were first discovered in the early 1950s and were subsequently introduced later in the decade; they are named after their chemical structure, which contains three rings of atoms... ) fluoxetine Fluoxetine Fluoxetine is an antidepressant of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor class. It is manufactured and marketed by Eli Lilly and Company...  (SSRI Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors or serotonin-specific reuptake inhibitor are a class of compounds typically used as antidepressants in the treatment of depression, anxiety disorders, and some personality disorders. The efficacy of SSRIs is disputed...  antidepressant) nateglinide Nateglinide Nateglinide is a drug for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Nateglinide was developed by Ajinomoto, a Japanese company and sold by the Swiss pharmaceutical company Novartis....  (antidiabetic) rosiglitazone Rosiglitazone Rosiglitazone is an antidiabetic drug in the thiazolidinedione class of drugs. It works as an insulin sensitizer, by binding to the PPAR receptors in fat cells and making the cells more responsive to insulin...  (antidiabetic) tamoxifen Tamoxifen Tamoxifen is an antagonist of the estrogen receptor in breast tissue via its active metabolite, hydroxytamoxifen. In other tissues such as the endometrium, it behaves as an agonist, hence tamoxifen may be characterized as a mixed agonist/antagonist...  (SERM Selective estrogen receptor modulator Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators are a class of compounds that act on the estrogen receptor. A characteristic that distinguishes these substances from pure receptor agonists and antagonists is that their action is different in various tissues, thereby granting the possibility to selectively... ) torasemide Torasemide Torasemide or torsemide is a pyridine-sulfonyl urea type loop diuretic mainly used in the management of edema associated with congestive heart failure. It is also used at low doses for the management of hypertension...  (loop diuretic Loop diuretic Loop diuretics are diuretics that act on the ascending loop of Henle in the kidney. They are primarily used in medicine to treat hypertension and edema often due to congestive heart failure or renal insufficiency... )	Strong: fluconazole Fluconazole Fluconazole is a triazole antifungal drug used in the treatment and prevention of superficial and systemic fungal infections. In a bulk powder form, it appears as a white crystalline powder, and it is very slightly soluble in water and soluble in alcohol. It is commonly marketed under the trade...  (antifungal) amentoflavone Amentoflavone Amentoflavone is a constituent of a number of plants with medicinal properties, including Ginkgo biloba and Hypericum perforatum .It is a biflavonoid ....  (constituent of Ginkgo biloba and St. John’s Wort) sulfaphenazole Sulfaphenazole Sulfaphenazole is a sulfonamide antibacterial....  (antibacterial) Valproic acid Valproic acid Valproic acid is a chemical compound that has found clinical use as an anticonvulsant and mood-stabilizing drug, primarily in the treatment of epilepsy, bipolar disorder, and, less commonly, major depression. It is also used to treat migraine headaches and schizophrenia...  (anticonvulsant Anticonvulsant The anticonvulsants are a diverse group of pharmaceuticals used in the treatment of epileptic seizures. Anticonvulsants are also increasingly being used in the treatment of bipolar disorder, since many seem to act as mood stabilizers, and in the treatment of neuropathic pain. The goal of an... , mood-stabilizing) Moderate amiodarone Amiodarone Amiodarone is an antiarrhythmic agent used for various types of tachyarrhythmias , both ventricular and supraventricular arrhythmias. Discovered in 1961, it was not approved for use in the United States until 1985...  (antiarrhythmic) Unspecified potency antihistamine Antihistamine An H1 antagonist is a histamine antagonist of the H1 receptor that serves to reduce or eliminate effects mediated by histamine, an endogenous chemical mediator released during allergic reactions... s (H1-receptor antagonists) Cyclizine Cyclizine Cyclizine is an antihistamine drug used to treat nausea, vomiting and dizziness associated with motion sickness, vertigo and post-operatively following administration of general anaesthesia and opioids.-Indications:... Promethazine Promethazine Promethazine is a first-generation antihistamine of the phenothiazine family. The drug has anti-motion sickness, antiemetic, and anticholinergic effects, as well as a strong sedative effect and in some countries is prescribed for insomnia when benzodiazepines are contraindicated... Chloramphenicol Chloramphenicol Chloramphenicol is a bacteriostatic antimicrobial that became available in 1949. It is considered a prototypical broad-spectrum antibiotic, alongside the tetracyclines, and as it is both cheap and easy to manufacture it is frequently found as a drug of choice in the third world.Chloramphenicol is... fenofibrate Fenofibrate Fenofibrate is a drug of the fibrate class. Fenofibrate was developed by Groupe Fournier SA, before it was acquired in 2005 by Solvay Pharmaceutical, a business unit owned by the Belgian corporation, Solvay S.A. In 2009 Solvay Pharmaceutical was acquired by Abbott Laboratories. It is mainly used to...  (fibrate Fibrate In pharmacology, the fibrates are a class of amphipathic carboxylic acids. They are used for a range of metabolic disorders, mainly hypercholesterolemia , and are therefore hypolipidemic agents.- Members :... ) flavones Flavones Flavones , are a class of flavonoids based on the backbone of 2-phenylchromen-4-one shown on the right.... flavonols Flavonols Flavonols are a class of flavonoids that have the 3-hydroxyflavone backbone . Their diversity stems from the different positions the phenolic -OH groups. They are distinct from flavanols , another class of flavonoids.Flavonols are present in a wide variety of fruits and vegetables... fluvastatin Fluvastatin Fluvastatin is a member of the drug class of statins, used to treat hypercholesterolemia and to prevent cardiovascular disease....  (statin Statin Statins are a class of drugs used to lower cholesterol levels by inhibiting the enzyme HMG-CoA reductase, which plays a central role in the production of cholesterol in the liver. Increased cholesterol levels have been associated with cardiovascular diseases, and statins are therefore used in the... ) fluvoxamine Fluvoxamine Fluvoxamine is an antidepressant which functions as a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor . Fluvoxamine was first approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 1993 for the treatment of obsessive compulsive disorder . Fluvoxamine CR is approved to treat social anxiety disorder...  (SSRI) isoniazid Isoniazid Isoniazid , also known as isonicotinylhydrazine , is an organic compound that is the first-line antituberculosis medication in prevention and treatment. It was first discovered in 1912, and later in 1951 it was found to be effective against tuberculosis by inhibiting its mycolic acid...  (in tuberculosis Tuberculosis Tuberculosis, MTB, or TB is a common, and in many cases lethal, infectious disease caused by various strains of mycobacteria, usually Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Tuberculosis usually attacks the lungs but can also affect other parts of the body... ) lovastatin Lovastatin Lovastatin is a member of the drug class of statins, used for lowering cholesterol in those with hypercholesterolemia and so preventing cardiovascular disease...  (statin Statin Statins are a class of drugs used to lower cholesterol levels by inhibiting the enzyme HMG-CoA reductase, which plays a central role in the production of cholesterol in the liver. Increased cholesterol levels have been associated with cardiovascular diseases, and statins are therefore used in the... ) phenylbutazone Phenylbutazone Phenylbutazone, often referred to as bute, is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug for the short-term treatment of pain and fever in animals. In the United States, it is no longer approved for human use.-In humans:...  (NSAID Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, usually abbreviated to NSAIDs or NAIDs, but also referred to as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents/analgesics or nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory medicines , are drugs with analgesic and antipyretic effects and which have, in higher doses, anti-inflammatory... ) probenecid Probenecid Probenecid is a uricosuric drug that increases uric acid excretion in the urine. It is primarily used in treating gout and hyperuricemia.Probenecid was developed as an alternative to caronamide...  (uricosuric Uricosuric Uricosuric medications are substances that increase the excretion of uric acid in the urine, thus reducing the concentration of uric acid in blood plasma. In general, this effect is achieved by action on the proximal tubule... ) sertraline Sertraline Sertraline hydrochloride is an antidepressant of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor class. It was introduced to the market by Pfizer in 1991. Sertraline is primarily used to treat major depression in adult outpatients as well as obsessive–compulsive, panic, and social anxiety disorders in...  (SSRI) sulfamethoxazole Sulfamethoxazole Sulfamethoxazole is a sulfonamide bacteriostatic antibiotic.It is most often used as part of a synergistic combination with trimethoprim in a 5:1 ratio in co-trimoxazole , also known under trade names such as Bactrim, Septrin, or Septra; in Eastern Europe it is marketed as Biseptol...  (antibiotic Antibiotic An antibacterial is a compound or substance that kills or slows down the growth of bacteria.The term is often used synonymously with the term antibiotic; today, however, with increased knowledge of the causative agents of various infectious diseases, antibiotic has come to denote a broader range of... ) teniposide Teniposide Teniposide is a chemotherapeutic medication mainly used in the treatment of childhood acute lymphocytic leukemia . It is in a class of drugs known as podophyllotoxin derivatives and slows the growth of cancer cells in the body....  (chemotherapeutic) voriconazole Voriconazole Voriconazole is a triazole antifungal medication that is generally used to treat serious, invasive fungal infections. These are generally seen in patients who are immunocompromised, and include invasive candidiasis, invasive aspergillosis, and certain emerging fungal infections.-Invasive...  (antifungal) zafirlukast Zafirlukast Zafirlukast is an oral leukotriene receptor antagonist for the maintenance treatment of asthma, often used in conjunction with an inhaled steroid and/or long-acting bronchodilator. It is available as a tablet and is usually dosed twice daily. Another leukotriene receptor antagonist is montelukast...  (leukotriene antagonist Leukotriene antagonist A leukotriene antagonist is a drug that inhibits leukotrienes, which are fatty compounds produced by the immune system that cause inflammation in asthma and bronchitis, and constrict airways.... )	Strong: rifampicin Rifampicin Rifampicin or rifampin is a bactericidal antibiotic drug of the rifamycin group. It is a semisynthetic compound derived from Amycolatopsis rifamycinica ...  (bactericidal) secobarbital Secobarbital Secobarbital sodium is a barbiturate derivative drug that was first synthesized in 1928 in Germany. It possesses anaesthetic, anticonvulsant, sedative and hypnotic properties...  (barbiturate Barbiturate Barbiturates are drugs that act as central nervous system depressants, and can therefore produce a wide spectrum of effects, from mild sedation to total anesthesia. They are also effective as anxiolytics, as hypnotics, and as anticonvulsants... )

External links

• PharmGKB: Annotated PGx Gene Information for CYP2C9
• SuperCYP: Database for Drug-Cytochrome-Interactions