Bonaparte Visiting the Plague-Victims of Jaffa
Encyclopedia
Bonaparte Visits the Plague Stricken in Jaffa (Bonaparte visitant les pestiférés de Jaffa) is an 1804
painting commissioned by Napoleon Bonaparte
from Antoine-Jean Gros
to portray an event during the Egyptian Campaign. The scene shows Napoleon during a striking scene which occurred in Jaffa
in 1799, during which he wished to show himself as a Christ
-like figure by healing with his touch. It was an attempt to quell unsavory rumours after Napoleon ordered that fifty incurable plague victims in Jaffa be poisoned (without complete success) during his retreat from his Syrian expedition.
This is part of the collection of French paintings at the Louvre
.
Oath of the Horatii
, also held at the Louvre, such as the three arcades from Oath which defined three different worlds (the three sons making the oath in the left one; the father brandishing the swords in the middle; the women abandoned to sadness in the right-hand one), a principle taken up in this painting too.
It is set in a mosque
, whose courtyard and minaret
we can see in the background. Further into the background are the walls of Jaffa, with a breached tower above which flies an oversized French flag. The smoke from a fire, or excessive cannon smoke, dominates the town.
To the left, dominated by a typically Arabic art, a man dressed richly-dressed in the oriental
manner hands out bread, aided by a servant carrying a bread-basket. Behind them, two black men carry a stretcher, on which is a form, probably a cadaver. The two-coloured arcade opens out on a gallery full of the sick.
To the right, under two arcades, under a broken arch, is Napoleon, accompanied by his officers, touching the armpit bubo
presented to him by one of the sick. In front of him, an Arab doctor is caring for another sick man, while a blind man struggles to approach the general. The bottom of the painting is occupied by prostrate and extended men. The light of the painting and the play of colours all paint Bonaparte's gesture in the best possible light.
by the French army under Bonaparte on 7 March 1799 were rapidly followed by an outbreak of bubonic plague
, identified by January 1799, which decimated the army. On 11 March, Bonaparte made a spectacular visit to the sick, touching them, which was considered to be either magnificent or suicidal according to one's point of view on the Napoleonic legend or of the terrors of an age of plagues.
The sick man with bandaged eyes on the right is suffering from blindness as well as plague. Since the army's arrival in Egypt in July 1798, several French had suffered serious eye problems due to the sand, dust and extreme light of the sun.
In 1804, there was no question of representing this as other than a daring deed by Bonaparte, but the officer behind Napoleon tries to stop him touching the bubo. The means by which bubonic plague spread were still unknown at the start of the 19th century, and the flea
's role in its transmission was unknown until Paul-Louis Simond
found evidence for it in 1898. Touching a bubo with a bare hand was not particularly risky, since all the other actors in the scene are (we now know) running exactly the same risk of transmission of the disease by fleas. The left-hand officer's action of holding something over his mouth and nose is not entirely unjustified, however - certain cases of bubonic plague can evolve into a pulmonary plague, with a highly elevated risk of infection from aerosol
s emitted by patients' coughs.
Medical efforts to stop the plague, seen a little further to the right, are unchanged since the Middle Ages - an old doctor is incising the bubos to let the pus flow out, which is in fact inefficient in terms of treating the disease, and also weakens the patient. He has already operated on a bubo under the raised right arm of his patient, who holds a bloodied compress under his arm, and is wiping his blade ready to incise a second bubo. The doctor's assistant supports the patient during the operation. The bodies are sick, languishing, and the hero is less heroic for being surrounded by ordinary people. Idealism and classicism
were abandoned in favour of a certain romanticism
. In effect, this is suffering in painted form, which was a novelty - previously only noble deaths were painted.
On 23 April 1799, during the siege of Acre
, Bonaparte suggested to Desgenettes
, the expedition's chief doctor, that the sick should be administered a fatal-level dose of opium
- that is, mercy-killed
. Desgenettes refused. On 27 May that same year, Napoleon made a second visit to the plague victims.
In the context of the Troubadour style
, and especially at the moment when Napoleon was becoming emperor, this episode evoked the tradition of the thaumaturgical
laying-on-of-hands which the French kings carried out with sufferers of scrofula.
1804 in art
-Events:*Sculptor Pompeo Marchesi wins a scholarship to study in Rome under Antonio Canova.-Awards:The Prix de Rome had been expanded in 1803 to include musical composition as a category, but was not awarded in 1804.* Grand Prix de Rome, painting:...
painting commissioned by Napoleon Bonaparte
Napoleon I of France
Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military and political leader during the latter stages of the French Revolution.As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 to 1815...
from Antoine-Jean Gros
Antoine-Jean Gros
Baron Antoine-Jean Gros , also known as Jean-Antoine Gros, was both a French History and neoclassical painter.-Early life and training:...
to portray an event during the Egyptian Campaign. The scene shows Napoleon during a striking scene which occurred in Jaffa
Jaffa
Jaffa is an ancient port city believed to be one of the oldest in the world. Jaffa was incorporated with Tel Aviv creating the city of Tel Aviv-Yafo, Israel. Jaffa is famous for its association with the biblical story of the prophet Jonah.-Etymology:...
in 1799, during which he wished to show himself as a Christ
Christ
Christ is the English term for the Greek meaning "the anointed one". It is a translation of the Hebrew , usually transliterated into English as Messiah or Mashiach...
-like figure by healing with his touch. It was an attempt to quell unsavory rumours after Napoleon ordered that fifty incurable plague victims in Jaffa be poisoned (without complete success) during his retreat from his Syrian expedition.
This is part of the collection of French paintings at the Louvre
Louvre
The Musée du Louvre – in English, the Louvre Museum or simply the Louvre – is one of the world's largest museums, the most visited art museum in the world and a historic monument. A central landmark of Paris, it is located on the Right Bank of the Seine in the 1st arrondissement...
.
Context of its creation
On 18 September 1804, the painting was exhibited at the Salon de Paris, between Napoleon's proclamation as emperor on 18 May and his coronation at Notre-Dame de Paris on 2 December. Dominique Vivant Denon, who participated in Bonaparte's expedition to Egypt and was now director of the musée du Louvre, acted as advisor to Gros on it.Composition
This painting uses elements of the composition of Jacques Louis David's 17841784 in art
-Works:*Jacques-Louis David – painting Oath of the Horatii-Births:*January 21 – Peter De Wint, English landscape painter *February 29 – Leo von Klenze, German neoclassicist architect, painter and writer...
Oath of the Horatii
Oath of the Horatii
Oath of the Horatii , is a work by French artist Jacques-Louis David painted in 1784. It depicts a scene from a Roman legend about a dispute between two warring cities; Rome and Alba Longa, when three brothers from a Roman family, the Horatii, agree to end the war by fighting three brothers from an...
, also held at the Louvre, such as the three arcades from Oath which defined three different worlds (the three sons making the oath in the left one; the father brandishing the swords in the middle; the women abandoned to sadness in the right-hand one), a principle taken up in this painting too.
It is set in a mosque
Mosque
A mosque is a place of worship for followers of Islam. The word is likely to have entered the English language through French , from Portuguese , from Spanish , and from Berber , ultimately originating in — . The Arabic word masjid literally means a place of prostration...
, whose courtyard and minaret
Minaret
A minaret مناره , sometimes مئذنه) is a distinctive architectural feature of Islamic mosques, generally a tall spire with an onion-shaped or conical crown, usually either free standing or taller than any associated support structure. The basic form of a minaret includes a base, shaft, and gallery....
we can see in the background. Further into the background are the walls of Jaffa, with a breached tower above which flies an oversized French flag. The smoke from a fire, or excessive cannon smoke, dominates the town.
To the left, dominated by a typically Arabic art, a man dressed richly-dressed in the oriental
Orientalism
Orientalism is a term used for the imitation or depiction of aspects of Eastern cultures in the West by writers, designers and artists, as well as having other meanings...
manner hands out bread, aided by a servant carrying a bread-basket. Behind them, two black men carry a stretcher, on which is a form, probably a cadaver. The two-coloured arcade opens out on a gallery full of the sick.
To the right, under two arcades, under a broken arch, is Napoleon, accompanied by his officers, touching the armpit bubo
Bubo
Bubo may refer to:* A bubo, a rounded swelling on the skin of a person afflicted by the bubonic plague.* Bubo, the horned owl and eagle-owl genus.* Bubo, a mechanical owl in the 1981 film Clash of the Titans...
presented to him by one of the sick. In front of him, an Arab doctor is caring for another sick man, while a blind man struggles to approach the general. The bottom of the painting is occupied by prostrate and extended men. The light of the painting and the play of colours all paint Bonaparte's gesture in the best possible light.
Analysis of the scene
The capture and violent sack of JaffaSiege of Jaffa
The Siege of Jaffa was fought from 3 to 7 March 1799 between France and the Ottoman Empire. The French were led by Napoleon Bonaparte, and they captured the city.-Course:...
by the French army under Bonaparte on 7 March 1799 were rapidly followed by an outbreak of bubonic plague
Bubonic plague
Plague is a deadly infectious disease that is caused by the enterobacteria Yersinia pestis, named after the French-Swiss bacteriologist Alexandre Yersin. Primarily carried by rodents and spread to humans via fleas, the disease is notorious throughout history, due to the unrivaled scale of death...
, identified by January 1799, which decimated the army. On 11 March, Bonaparte made a spectacular visit to the sick, touching them, which was considered to be either magnificent or suicidal according to one's point of view on the Napoleonic legend or of the terrors of an age of plagues.
The sick man with bandaged eyes on the right is suffering from blindness as well as plague. Since the army's arrival in Egypt in July 1798, several French had suffered serious eye problems due to the sand, dust and extreme light of the sun.
In 1804, there was no question of representing this as other than a daring deed by Bonaparte, but the officer behind Napoleon tries to stop him touching the bubo. The means by which bubonic plague spread were still unknown at the start of the 19th century, and the flea
Flea
Flea is the common name for insects of the order Siphonaptera which are wingless insects with mouthparts adapted for piercing skin and sucking blood...
's role in its transmission was unknown until Paul-Louis Simond
Paul-Louis Simond
Paul-Louis Simond was a French physician and biologist who was born in Beaufort-sur-Gervanne, on July 30, 1858. His major contribution to science was his demonstration that the intermediates in the transmission of bubonic plague from rats to humans are the fleas Xenopsylla cheopis that dwell on...
found evidence for it in 1898. Touching a bubo with a bare hand was not particularly risky, since all the other actors in the scene are (we now know) running exactly the same risk of transmission of the disease by fleas. The left-hand officer's action of holding something over his mouth and nose is not entirely unjustified, however - certain cases of bubonic plague can evolve into a pulmonary plague, with a highly elevated risk of infection from aerosol
Aerosol
Technically, an aerosol is a suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in a gas. Examples are clouds, and air pollution such as smog and smoke. In general conversation, aerosol usually refers to an aerosol spray can or the output of such a can...
s emitted by patients' coughs.
Medical efforts to stop the plague, seen a little further to the right, are unchanged since the Middle Ages - an old doctor is incising the bubos to let the pus flow out, which is in fact inefficient in terms of treating the disease, and also weakens the patient. He has already operated on a bubo under the raised right arm of his patient, who holds a bloodied compress under his arm, and is wiping his blade ready to incise a second bubo. The doctor's assistant supports the patient during the operation. The bodies are sick, languishing, and the hero is less heroic for being surrounded by ordinary people. Idealism and classicism
Classicism
Classicism, in the arts, refers generally to a high regard for classical antiquity, as setting standards for taste which the classicists seek to emulate. The art of classicism typically seeks to be formal and restrained: of the Discobolus Sir Kenneth Clark observed, "if we object to his restraint...
were abandoned in favour of a certain romanticism
Romanticism
Romanticism was an artistic, literary and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Europe, and gained strength in reaction to the Industrial Revolution...
. In effect, this is suffering in painted form, which was a novelty - previously only noble deaths were painted.
On 23 April 1799, during the siege of Acre
Siege of Acre (1799)
The Siege of Acre of 1799 was an unsuccessful French siege of the Ottoman-defended, walled city of Acre and was the turning point of Napoleon's invasion of Egypt and Syria.-Background:...
, Bonaparte suggested to Desgenettes
René-Nicolas Dufriche Desgenettes
René-Nicolas Dufriche, baron Desgenettes was a French military doctor. He was chief doctor to the French army in Egypt and at Waterloo.-Early life:...
, the expedition's chief doctor, that the sick should be administered a fatal-level dose of opium
Opium
Opium is the dried latex obtained from the opium poppy . Opium contains up to 12% morphine, an alkaloid, which is frequently processed chemically to produce heroin for the illegal drug trade. The latex also includes codeine and non-narcotic alkaloids such as papaverine, thebaine and noscapine...
- that is, mercy-killed
Euthanasia
Euthanasia refers to the practice of intentionally ending a life in order to relieve pain and suffering....
. Desgenettes refused. On 27 May that same year, Napoleon made a second visit to the plague victims.
In the context of the Troubadour style
Troubadour style
Taking its name from medieval troubadours, the Troubadour Style was a French artistic movement across multiple media aiming to regain the idealised atmosphere of the Middle Ages...
, and especially at the moment when Napoleon was becoming emperor, this episode evoked the tradition of the thaumaturgical
Thaumaturgy
Thaumaturgy is the capability of a saint or magician to work miracles. It is sometimes translated into English as wonderworking...
laying-on-of-hands which the French kings carried out with sufferers of scrofula.
The Mysterious "32"
A longstanding question concerning the interpretation of the painting is the significance of the number "32" on the hat of one of the patients. Since Gros, the artist, was 32 years old at the time at the composition, the shy, naked prisoner may in fact be a hidden self-portrait.Sources
- "Peste", from Encyclopædia UniversalisEncyclopædia UniversalisThe Encyclopædia Universalis is a French-language general encyclopedia published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., a privately held company. The articles of the Encyclopædia Universalis are aimed at educated adult readers, and written by a staff of full-time editors and expert contributors...
- Jean Massin, Almanach du Premier empire, 1988, ISBN 2-85229-701-9.