Battle of Ciudad Juárez
Encyclopedia
The First Battle of Ciudad Juárez took place in April and May 1911 between federal forces loyal to Porfirio Díaz
and rebel forces of Francisco Madero, during the Mexican Revolution
. Pascual Orozco
and Pancho Villa
commanded Madero's army which besieged Ciudad Juárez
, Chihuahua. After two days of fighting the city's garrison surrendered and Orozco and Villa took control of the town. The fall of Ciudad Juárez to Madero, combined with Zapata's
taking of Cuautla
in Morelos
, convinced President Porfirio Díaz that he could not hope to defeat the rebels. As a result, Díaz agreed to the Treaty of Ciudad Juárez
, resigned, and went into exile in France
, thus ending the initial stage of the Mexican Revolution.
in United States, in November 1910, called for an uprising against Díaz. In the northern state of Chihuahua, the call was answered by the trader, miner, and arms smuggler Pascual Orozco and the "social bandit" Pancho Villa, both of whom began guerrilla operations against Díaz's federal troops.
Encouraged by Villa's and Orozco's actions, as well as the outbreak of the Zapatista rebellion in Morelos, Madero crossed back into Mexico in February 1911. After a few minor engagements, Madero, Orozco and Villa decided to attack the federal troops at Ciudad Juárez. If they could take the city, they would control traffic between Mexico and the United States. Furthermore, such a big success by the revolutionaries could very well be the final push which would knock over the Porfiriato.
At the same time, the attack on Ciudad Juárez would mark the first time that the revolutionary army would confront the federal troops in a regular battle rather than relying on guerrilla tactics. While the fusion of Madero's, Villa's and Orozco's men did result in number of troops sufficient to form a force capable of fighting professional soldiers in pitched encounters, the federal troops still had advantage in terms of training and discipline. The government forces in fact, had a good chance of squashing the rebels by moving troops down from the state capital Ciudad Chihuahua
and capturing Madero in a pincer movement
. However, the Díaz-appointed governor of the state, Miguel Ahumada, was worried that if the soldiers abandoned the capital, unrest would break out and the insurrection would spread. Further concerned with the apparent demoralization of federal rank and file soldiers (many of whom had been forcibly conscripted
and actually sympathized with the revolutionaries), the troops in Ciudad Chihuahua decided to stay put.
, which proved successful (the battle was significant in that it was the first time railroads were used by the rebels to gain surprise and that US forces were involved in the fighting). The town was recaptured by federal troops two weeks later once additional reinforcements arrived.
The main rebel offensive occurred on April 7, when Madero led 1,500 men to Ciudad Juárez, preceded by Villa and Orozco, with 500 men each. Along the way the insurrectionists captured Temosachi
and Bauche, which greatly raised their morale.
Ciudad Juárez, defended by 700 soldiers, was surrounded on three sides, with the only possible exit route for the besieged being the northern path into El Paso
and the United States. Despite the fact that the revolutionaries had cut off the water supplies into town and the garrison was low on ammunition, its commander, General Juan Navarro
, refused to surrender, convinced that the inexperience of the rebels in laying sieges would allow him to hold out.
and main advisor, Jose Yves Limantour
, Díaz planned to make concessions to the fairly moderate Madero, and once Madero was pacified, crack down hard on the more radical elements among the rebels. A truce was agreed to on April 23.
While Madero was ready to negotiate with Díaz and hold off from attacking, Villa and Orozco would have none of it. On May 8, the two generals launched an assault on the city without consulting Madero and blamed it on a "spontaneous" outbreak in fighting. The incident which served as an excuse for the offensive occurred when a federal officer insulted a female rebel on a bridge between Ciudad Juarez and El Paso. Madero attempted to halt the violence but Orozco and Villa pressed on. Both of them went to great lengths to avoid Madero so that they wouldn't have to disobey a direct order. Even when Villa was eventually confronted by Castulo Herrera with explicit instructions to stop fighting, he simply ignored him. Likewise, when Madero finally managed to see Orozco in person, he was simply told that the battle was already raging and it was too late to stop it.
Navarro, for his part, pressured by Madero, tried to keep the ceasefire for as long as he could. This proved to be quite costly to the defenders. The rebel forces captured the outer defenses of the city unopposed as no federal officer was willing to countermand the orders to hold fire. Instead, the troops withdrew deeper into the city.
Orozco attacked in the north and Villa in the south. Both of them led their troops parallel to the US border so that neither their shots, nor those of the town's garrison were likely to cross on to the American side. In fact, several thousand American civilians had gathered in El Paso in order to watch the struggle as spectators.
, and reached the outskirts of the city center (where the second life of defenses had been constructed) on the first day of fighting. Navarro, influenced by the advice of the impetuous Colonel Tamborrel, turned down an offer of safe passage made by the rebels.
The town was well defended and fortified, as Navarro had prepared a defense in depth with several concentric
rings of trenches, barricades and fortifications. However, unknown to the defenders, the insurrectionists had with them significant supplies of dynamite and foreign experts from other guerrilla wars, including the Boer
general Ben Viljoen
, and the grandson of the famous Italian revolutionary Giuseppe Garibaldi II
. (News dispatches from the battle also mention the participation of future star of many Hollywood Westerns
, Tom Mix
.) In order to counteract the formidable defenses, the rebels developed an effective strategy which managed to circumvent Navarro's well-placed machine gun nests and street barricades. Rather than attacking through the streets, they used the dynamite to blow the walls of the adobe houses that were huddled up next to each other, which allowed them to proceed through the city house by house.
Another novel aspect of the offensive used by the attackers, which was extensively commented upon by the American journalist Timothy Turner who was observing the battle from El Paso, was the rotation of troops that the rebels employed. Rather than attacking en masse with the whole army, Villa and Orozco had their soldiers engage the enemy for a few hours, then go back to secure positions to sleep, while other rebels took their place. As a consequence the insurrectionist troops were always rested while the less numerous defending troops were forced to remain sleepless and ever vigilant.
The federal troops ran out of water on May 8 (according to a report later submitted by Madero himself) and were confined to only a few buildings in the center of the city. Most of the fighting at this point was in close quarters and as a result the advantage in machine guns and artillery that the federals enjoyed earlier was no longer a factor. According to some accounts General Navarro's troops were on the verge of mutiny and he was seriously worried that they rank and file soldiers would turn on his officers. As a result he began negotiations with the rebel forces. Navarro surrendered the town two days later, on 2:30 on May 10, 1911.
The immediate effect of the rebels' success helped convince Porfirio Díaz to agree to the revolutionaries' demand for his resignation. Prompted by Limantour, two days after end of the battle Díaz signed the Treaty of Ciudad Juárez with Madero, and ten days after the battle, he resigned, and went into exile in France
. This ended the first stage of the Mexican Revolution, and at the same time made it clear that even well-garrisoned troops were not invulnerable to guerrilla armies.
as Madero's defence minister
. Carranza was a civilian who had joined the revolution at the last minute and for these reasons was despised by both Orozco and Villa (in fact, Carranza was to become Villa's main antagonist in the future).
However, the immediate cause for the outbreak of the conflict among the rebels was the fate of the federal General Juan Navarro who had defended Ciudad Juárez. Both Villa and Orozco wanted him executed for his earlier killing of revolutionary POWs. Madero opposed it, despite the fact that a court martial of federal officers who committed war crimes was one of the main points of his manifesto
. Orozco and Villa went to confront Madero, a tense situation arose, and (according to Villa and other witnesses) Orozco drew his pistol on Madero. Eventually Madero escaped the predicament by appealing directly to Villa's and Orozco's troops and the two generals had to relent. Madero escorted Navarro personally across the US border to El Paso. Likewise, Carranza kept his post while Orozco in particular nursed a grudge. However, Madero did withdraw gold from the local bank and distributed it to the troops in accordance with the generals' wishes.
The motivations of the three in the infighting are not completely clear. According to Friedrich Katz
, Madero, in refusing to let Navarro die was motivated by his personal humanism, but also by a need to assert his, civilian, authority over military leaders. It also seems that Villa was mostly concerned with taking care of his soldiers and his personal hatred for Navarro since it was Villista soldiers that Navarro had earlier ordered to be bayonet
ed. Years later, after he fell out with Orozco, Villa wrote in his memoirs that the whole episode was a set-up by Orozco, who had been paid 50,000 pesos by Díaz's agents, to get him to kill Madero. While Katz, and other scholars, consider this assessment extreme, it is possible that Orozco, who believed that he should be the rightful leader of the revolution, was trying to provoke Villa into killing Madero. That way Madero would be out of the way, Villa would be discredited among the intellectual revolutionary circles as a common bandit, and Orozco could claim the mantle of leadership. In the end however, Villa kept his cool, Madero convinced common soldiers to support him, and Orozco did not have the nerve to go through with it.
in his coup d'état against Madero. After Huerta's fall Orozco went into exile in the United States and was eventually killed by Texas Rangers
while trying to make his way back into Mexico to raise another revolt.
Pancho Villa remained loyal to Madero (and even fought for him against Orozco) and contributed greatly to the fall of Huerta. However, he broke with Venustiano Carranza and lost the struggle for the control of the revolution to Carranza's General Álvaro Obregón
.
Porfirio Díaz
José de la Cruz Porfirio Díaz Mori was a Mexican-American War volunteer and French intervention hero, an accomplished general and the President of Mexico continuously from 1876 to 1911, with the exception of a brief term in 1876 when he left Juan N...
and rebel forces of Francisco Madero, during the Mexican Revolution
Mexican Revolution
The Mexican Revolution was a major armed struggle that started in 1910, with an uprising led by Francisco I. Madero against longtime autocrat Porfirio Díaz. The Revolution was characterized by several socialist, liberal, anarchist, populist, and agrarianist movements. Over time the Revolution...
. Pascual Orozco
Pascual Orozco
Pascual Orozco Vazquez was a Mexican revolutionary leader who, after the triumph of the Mexican Revolution, rose up against Francisco I...
and Pancho Villa
Pancho Villa
José Doroteo Arango Arámbula – better known by his pseudonym Francisco Villa or its hypocorism Pancho Villa – was one of the most prominent Mexican Revolutionary generals....
commanded Madero's army which besieged Ciudad Juárez
Ciudad Juárez
Ciudad Juárez , officially known today as Heroica Ciudad Juárez, but abbreviated Juárez and formerly known as El Paso del Norte, is a city and seat of the municipality of Juárez in the Mexican state of Chihuahua. Juárez's estimated population is 1.5 million people. The city lies on the Rio Grande...
, Chihuahua. After two days of fighting the city's garrison surrendered and Orozco and Villa took control of the town. The fall of Ciudad Juárez to Madero, combined with Zapata's
Emiliano Zapata
Emiliano Zapata Salazar was a leading figure in the Mexican Revolution, which broke out in 1910, and which was initially directed against the president Porfirio Díaz. He formed and commanded an important revolutionary force, the Liberation Army of the South, during the Mexican Revolution...
taking of Cuautla
Battle of Cuautla (1911)
The Battle of Cuautla was a battle between the forces of Emiliano Zapata and the federal army of the Mexican government that took place in the state of Morelos from May 11–19, 1911, during the Mexican Revolution. It has been described as the "six of the most terrible days of battle in the whole...
in Morelos
Morelos
Morelos officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Morelos is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 33 municipalities and its capital city is Cuernavaca....
, convinced President Porfirio Díaz that he could not hope to defeat the rebels. As a result, Díaz agreed to the Treaty of Ciudad Juárez
Treaty of Ciudad Juárez
The Treaty of Ciudad Juárez was a peace treaty signed between the then President of Mexico, Porfirio Díaz, and the revolutionary Francisco Madero on May 21, 1911...
, resigned, and went into exile in France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, thus ending the initial stage of the Mexican Revolution.
Background
After thirty-four years of dictatorial rule, opposition to the regime of Porfirio Díaz coalesced around the leadership of Francisco Madero. Madero had escaped from prison in Mexico and while in exileExile
Exile means to be away from one's home , while either being explicitly refused permission to return and/or being threatened with imprisonment or death upon return...
in United States, in November 1910, called for an uprising against Díaz. In the northern state of Chihuahua, the call was answered by the trader, miner, and arms smuggler Pascual Orozco and the "social bandit" Pancho Villa, both of whom began guerrilla operations against Díaz's federal troops.
Encouraged by Villa's and Orozco's actions, as well as the outbreak of the Zapatista rebellion in Morelos, Madero crossed back into Mexico in February 1911. After a few minor engagements, Madero, Orozco and Villa decided to attack the federal troops at Ciudad Juárez. If they could take the city, they would control traffic between Mexico and the United States. Furthermore, such a big success by the revolutionaries could very well be the final push which would knock over the Porfiriato.
At the same time, the attack on Ciudad Juárez would mark the first time that the revolutionary army would confront the federal troops in a regular battle rather than relying on guerrilla tactics. While the fusion of Madero's, Villa's and Orozco's men did result in number of troops sufficient to form a force capable of fighting professional soldiers in pitched encounters, the federal troops still had advantage in terms of training and discipline. The government forces in fact, had a good chance of squashing the rebels by moving troops down from the state capital Ciudad Chihuahua
Chihuahua, Chihuahua
The city of Chihuahua is the state capital of the Mexican state of Chihuahua. It has a population of about 825,327. The predominant activity is industry, including domestic heavy, light industries, consumer goods production, and to a smaller extent maquiladoras.-History:It has been said that the...
and capturing Madero in a pincer movement
Pincer movement
The pincer movement or double envelopment is a military maneuver. The flanks of the opponent are attacked simultaneously in a pinching motion after the opponent has advanced towards the center of an army which is responding by moving its outside forces to the enemy's flanks, in order to surround it...
. However, the Díaz-appointed governor of the state, Miguel Ahumada, was worried that if the soldiers abandoned the capital, unrest would break out and the insurrection would spread. Further concerned with the apparent demoralization of federal rank and file soldiers (many of whom had been forcibly conscripted
Conscription
Conscription is the compulsory enlistment of people in some sort of national service, most often military service. Conscription dates back to antiquity and continues in some countries to the present day under various names...
and actually sympathized with the revolutionaries), the troops in Ciudad Chihuahua decided to stay put.
The battle
Run up engagements
Madero sent a portion of his forces to make a diversionary attack on Agua PrietaFirst Battle of Agua Prieta
The First Battle of Agua Prieta was fought between the supporters of Francisco Madero and federal troops of Porfirio Díaz in April 1911, at Agua Prieta, Sonora, in the initial phase of the Mexican Revolution....
, which proved successful (the battle was significant in that it was the first time railroads were used by the rebels to gain surprise and that US forces were involved in the fighting). The town was recaptured by federal troops two weeks later once additional reinforcements arrived.
The main rebel offensive occurred on April 7, when Madero led 1,500 men to Ciudad Juárez, preceded by Villa and Orozco, with 500 men each. Along the way the insurrectionists captured Temosachi
Temósachi (municipality)
Temósachi is a one of the 67 municipalities of Chihuahua, in northern Mexico. The municipal seat lies at Temósachi. The municipality covers an area of 5,361.9 km².As of 2005, the municipality had a total population of 6,319.-Towns and villages:...
and Bauche, which greatly raised their morale.
Ciudad Juárez, defended by 700 soldiers, was surrounded on three sides, with the only possible exit route for the besieged being the northern path into El Paso
El Paso
El Paso, a city in the U.S. state of Texas, on the border with Mexico.El Paso may also refer to:-Geography:Colombia:* El Paso, CesarSpain:*El Paso, Santa Cruz de TenerifeUnited States:...
and the United States. Despite the fact that the revolutionaries had cut off the water supplies into town and the garrison was low on ammunition, its commander, General Juan Navarro
Juan Navarro
Juan Navarro is the name of:* Juan Navarro Hispalensis , composer* Juan Navarro Gaditanus , Franciscan monk and composer* Juan Navarro Reverter , Spanish politician* Juan Gil Navarro , Argentinian TV actor...
, refused to surrender, convinced that the inexperience of the rebels in laying sieges would allow him to hold out.
Villa and Orozco disobey Madero
At this point Díaz tried to come to terms with Madero, particularly after the capture of Cuautla by the Zapatistas in south-central Mexico. Together with his finance ministerFinance minister
The finance minister is a cabinet position in a government.A minister of finance has many different jobs in a government. He or she helps form the government budget, stimulate the economy, and control finances...
and main advisor, Jose Yves Limantour
José Yves Limantour
José Yves Limantour was a Mexican politician, Secretary of the Finance of Mexico from 1893 until the fall of the Porfirio Díaz regime in 1911.José Yves Limantour was the illegitimate son of Joseph Yves Limantour....
, Díaz planned to make concessions to the fairly moderate Madero, and once Madero was pacified, crack down hard on the more radical elements among the rebels. A truce was agreed to on April 23.
While Madero was ready to negotiate with Díaz and hold off from attacking, Villa and Orozco would have none of it. On May 8, the two generals launched an assault on the city without consulting Madero and blamed it on a "spontaneous" outbreak in fighting. The incident which served as an excuse for the offensive occurred when a federal officer insulted a female rebel on a bridge between Ciudad Juarez and El Paso. Madero attempted to halt the violence but Orozco and Villa pressed on. Both of them went to great lengths to avoid Madero so that they wouldn't have to disobey a direct order. Even when Villa was eventually confronted by Castulo Herrera with explicit instructions to stop fighting, he simply ignored him. Likewise, when Madero finally managed to see Orozco in person, he was simply told that the battle was already raging and it was too late to stop it.
Navarro, for his part, pressured by Madero, tried to keep the ceasefire for as long as he could. This proved to be quite costly to the defenders. The rebel forces captured the outer defenses of the city unopposed as no federal officer was willing to countermand the orders to hold fire. Instead, the troops withdrew deeper into the city.
Orozco attacked in the north and Villa in the south. Both of them led their troops parallel to the US border so that neither their shots, nor those of the town's garrison were likely to cross on to the American side. In fact, several thousand American civilians had gathered in El Paso in order to watch the struggle as spectators.
Unconventional attack
The rebels took control of the bridges connecting the city to United States, cut off electricity and telegraph, captured the bull ringBull ring
Bull ring may refer to:*The arena in which bullfighting takes place, see bullring,*The Bull Ring, a henge in England;*Bull Ring, Birmingham - a city-centre area of Birmingham, England;...
, and reached the outskirts of the city center (where the second life of defenses had been constructed) on the first day of fighting. Navarro, influenced by the advice of the impetuous Colonel Tamborrel, turned down an offer of safe passage made by the rebels.
Concentric
Concentric objects share the same center, axis or origin with one inside the other. Circles, tubes, cylindrical shafts, disks, and spheres may be concentric to one another...
rings of trenches, barricades and fortifications. However, unknown to the defenders, the insurrectionists had with them significant supplies of dynamite and foreign experts from other guerrilla wars, including the Boer
Boer
Boer is the Dutch and Afrikaans word for farmer, which came to denote the descendants of the Dutch-speaking settlers of the eastern Cape frontier in Southern Africa during the 18th century, as well as those who left the Cape Colony during the 19th century to settle in the Orange Free State,...
general Ben Viljoen
Ben Viljoen
Benjamin Johannes Viljoen was a general in the Boer army. He was born in a cave in the Wodehouse district of the Cape Colony. This was the temporary residence of the Viljoen family while their farm house was being constructed. He spent his early years on the Varkiesdraai farm near Umtata...
, and the grandson of the famous Italian revolutionary Giuseppe Garibaldi II
Giuseppe Garibaldi II
Brigadier-General Giuseppe Garibaldi II was an Italian soldier, grandson of Giuseppe Garibaldi.Garibaldi was born in Melbourne, Australia, the son of Ricciotti Garibaldi....
. (News dispatches from the battle also mention the participation of future star of many Hollywood Westerns
Western (genre)
The Western is a genre of various visual arts, such as film, television, radio, literature, painting and others. Westerns are devoted to telling stories set primarily in the latter half of the 19th century in the American Old West, hence the name. Some Westerns are set as early as the Battle of...
, Tom Mix
Tom Mix
Thomas Edwin "Tom" Mix was an American film actor and the star of many early Western movies. He made a reported 336 films between 1910 and 1935, all but nine of which were silent features...
.) In order to counteract the formidable defenses, the rebels developed an effective strategy which managed to circumvent Navarro's well-placed machine gun nests and street barricades. Rather than attacking through the streets, they used the dynamite to blow the walls of the adobe houses that were huddled up next to each other, which allowed them to proceed through the city house by house.
Another novel aspect of the offensive used by the attackers, which was extensively commented upon by the American journalist Timothy Turner who was observing the battle from El Paso, was the rotation of troops that the rebels employed. Rather than attacking en masse with the whole army, Villa and Orozco had their soldiers engage the enemy for a few hours, then go back to secure positions to sleep, while other rebels took their place. As a consequence the insurrectionist troops were always rested while the less numerous defending troops were forced to remain sleepless and ever vigilant.
The federal troops ran out of water on May 8 (according to a report later submitted by Madero himself) and were confined to only a few buildings in the center of the city. Most of the fighting at this point was in close quarters and as a result the advantage in machine guns and artillery that the federals enjoyed earlier was no longer a factor. According to some accounts General Navarro's troops were on the verge of mutiny and he was seriously worried that they rank and file soldiers would turn on his officers. As a result he began negotiations with the rebel forces. Navarro surrendered the town two days later, on 2:30 on May 10, 1911.
Aftermath
After capturing the town, Madero's revolutionary movement achieved a new kind of credibility, both in Mexico and with the United States. Some American journalists crossed the border in order to congratulate Madero personally, and reported back to American readers on the quick and efficient way that order within the city had been reestablished.Fall of Díaz
The outcome of the battle changed the perception of the rebel movement in Mexico. Before Madero's victory many believed that the rebel forces would scattered as soon as they were confronted by federal troops. The fall of Juárez proved that notion wrong and revealed the real strength of the rebel forces.The immediate effect of the rebels' success helped convince Porfirio Díaz to agree to the revolutionaries' demand for his resignation. Prompted by Limantour, two days after end of the battle Díaz signed the Treaty of Ciudad Juárez with Madero, and ten days after the battle, he resigned, and went into exile in France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
. This ended the first stage of the Mexican Revolution, and at the same time made it clear that even well-garrisoned troops were not invulnerable to guerrilla armies.
Dissension among the victors
A more indirect consequence arose from the disagreements that occurred between Madero and the generals Villa and Orozco. The tensions began during the battle and continued afterward. In addition to the insubordination that the two military leaders showed Madero while the fighting was still ongoing, they also clashed with him afterwards over payment to their soldiers and over the appointment of Venustiano CarranzaVenustiano Carranza
Venustiano Carranza de la Garza, was one of the leaders of the Mexican Revolution. He ultimately became President of Mexico following the overthrow of the dictatorial Huerta regime in the summer of 1914 and during his administration the current constitution of Mexico was drafted...
as Madero's defence minister
Defence minister
A defence minister is a person in a cabinet position in charge of a Ministry of Defence, which regulates the armed forces in some sovereign nations...
. Carranza was a civilian who had joined the revolution at the last minute and for these reasons was despised by both Orozco and Villa (in fact, Carranza was to become Villa's main antagonist in the future).
However, the immediate cause for the outbreak of the conflict among the rebels was the fate of the federal General Juan Navarro who had defended Ciudad Juárez. Both Villa and Orozco wanted him executed for his earlier killing of revolutionary POWs. Madero opposed it, despite the fact that a court martial of federal officers who committed war crimes was one of the main points of his manifesto
Plan of San Luis Potosí
The Plan of San Luis de Potosí was a political document written in San Antonio, Texas, United States, and published in the Mexican city of San Luis Potosí in 1910. The document ushered in the Mexican revolution and the collapse of the Presidency of Porfirio Díaz...
. Orozco and Villa went to confront Madero, a tense situation arose, and (according to Villa and other witnesses) Orozco drew his pistol on Madero. Eventually Madero escaped the predicament by appealing directly to Villa's and Orozco's troops and the two generals had to relent. Madero escorted Navarro personally across the US border to El Paso. Likewise, Carranza kept his post while Orozco in particular nursed a grudge. However, Madero did withdraw gold from the local bank and distributed it to the troops in accordance with the generals' wishes.
The motivations of the three in the infighting are not completely clear. According to Friedrich Katz
Friedrich Katz
C. Friedrich Katz was an Austrian-born anthropologist and historian specialized in 19th and 20th century history of Latin America; particularly, in the Mexican Revolution...
, Madero, in refusing to let Navarro die was motivated by his personal humanism, but also by a need to assert his, civilian, authority over military leaders. It also seems that Villa was mostly concerned with taking care of his soldiers and his personal hatred for Navarro since it was Villista soldiers that Navarro had earlier ordered to be bayonet
Bayonet
A bayonet is a knife, dagger, sword, or spike-shaped weapon designed to fit in, on, over or underneath the muzzle of a rifle, musket or similar weapon, effectively turning the gun into a spear...
ed. Years later, after he fell out with Orozco, Villa wrote in his memoirs that the whole episode was a set-up by Orozco, who had been paid 50,000 pesos by Díaz's agents, to get him to kill Madero. While Katz, and other scholars, consider this assessment extreme, it is possible that Orozco, who believed that he should be the rightful leader of the revolution, was trying to provoke Villa into killing Madero. That way Madero would be out of the way, Villa would be discredited among the intellectual revolutionary circles as a common bandit, and Orozco could claim the mantle of leadership. In the end however, Villa kept his cool, Madero convinced common soldiers to support him, and Orozco did not have the nerve to go through with it.
Later developments resulting from the battle
Orozco remained unsatisfied with the political positions he was offered in the Madero government. He became even more angry when Madero asked him to fight Zapata in central Mexico. As a result, in March 1912, less than a year after the battle of Ciudad Juárez, Orozco formally declared himself in rebellion against Madero. He subsequently supported Victoriano HuertaVictoriano Huerta
José Victoriano Huerta Márquez was a Mexican military officer and president of Mexico. Huerta's supporters were known as Huertistas during the Mexican Revolution...
in his coup d'état against Madero. After Huerta's fall Orozco went into exile in the United States and was eventually killed by Texas Rangers
Texas Ranger Division
The Texas Ranger Division, commonly called the Texas Rangers, is a law enforcement agency with statewide jurisdiction in Texas, and is based in Austin, Texas...
while trying to make his way back into Mexico to raise another revolt.
Pancho Villa remained loyal to Madero (and even fought for him against Orozco) and contributed greatly to the fall of Huerta. However, he broke with Venustiano Carranza and lost the struggle for the control of the revolution to Carranza's General Álvaro Obregón
Álvaro Obregón
General Álvaro Obregón Salido was the President of Mexico from 1920 to 1924. He was assassinated in 1928, shortly after winning election to another presidential term....
.