Bakt
Encyclopedia
The Baqt was a treaty
between the Christian
state of Makuria
and the Muslim
rulers of Egypt
. Lasting almost seven hundred years it is by some measures the longest lasting treaty in history. The name comes either from the Egyptian's term for barter
or the Greco-Roman term for pact
.
Despite its longevity not much is clear about the baqt and almost all the information about it comes from Muslim sources. The Baqt was signed after the 651 Muslim invasion of Egypt. That year Abdallah ibn Abi Sarh led an army south against the Christian kingdoms of Nubia
. Later Islamic historians state that Nubia was not worth conquering and the expedition was simply to subordinate the region to Egypt. Earlier sources give the more likely story that the Arab armies met a rare defeat at the Battle of Dongola
and only acceded to the Baqt when they realized that the conquest of the region would be difficult. The treaty was negotiated between Abi Sarh and the Makurian King Qalidurat.
There is no extant copy of the treaty they signed, and the earliest copies are several centuries after the fact and are quite varied. The treaty might not have been written at all and may have just been an oral agreement. Some sections of the baqt are clear:
The most important provision was that 360 slave
s per year were to be sent to Egypt. These slaves had to be of the highest quality with no old ones or children, they were to be a mix of male and female. In some reports an extra forty were due which were distributed among notables in Egypt.
Ibn Abd al-Hakam, one of the first historians to discuss the treaty, gives two different versions of the treaty. The first has only Nubia sending slaves north, thus symbolizing its subservience to Egypt. The second version adds an obligation of the Egyptians to also send goods south including wheat
and lentil
s in exchange for the slaves, this would put the two nations on a more equal footing.
This treaty was unprecedented in the history of the Arab conquests, being more similar to the arrangements the Byzantine Empire
sometimes made with its neighbours. It is also unmatched in that it largely blocked the spread of Islam and the Arabs for half a millennium. The Baqt caused some controversy among Islamic theologians
as there was controversy over whether it violated the duty to expand the borders of Islam. Spaulding reports that the exchange of goods was a common diplomatic arrangement in Northeast Africa and the Nubians would have had long experience with such agreements.
The Baqt was not always without controversy and conflicts between the neighbours were not unheard of. In the 830s, Egypt plunged into civil war and King Zacharias III of Makuria
halted payment of the Baqt. When Ibrahim gained firm control of Egypt he demanded resumption of the Baqt, and payment of arrears. Unable or unwilling to pay this large sum Zacharias sent his son and heir Georgios
on a long journey to Baghdad
in 835 to negotiate directly with the Caliph. This expedition was a great success and the arrears were canceled and the Baqt was altered so that it only had to be paid every three years.
The closest relations were during the Fatimid
period in Egypt. The Shi'ite Fatimids had few allies in the Arab world and Nubia was an important ally. The slaves sent from Nubia made up the backbone of the Fatimid army. Relations were worse under the Ayyubids and very poor under the Mamelukes, with full scale war eventually breaking out. Even after Makuria collapsed in the thirteenth century the Egyptians continued to insist upon its payment by the Muslim successor kingdoms in the region. The Baqt finally ended in the mid-fourteenth century with the complete collapse of organized government in the region.
Treaty
A treaty is an express agreement under international law entered into by actors in international law, namely sovereign states and international organizations. A treaty may also be known as an agreement, protocol, covenant, convention or exchange of letters, among other terms...
between the Christian
Christian
A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as recorded in the Canonical gospels and the letters of the New Testament...
state of Makuria
Makuria
The Kingdom of Makuria was a kingdom located in what is today Northern Sudan and Southern Egypt. It was one of a group of Nubian kingdoms that emerged during the decline of the Aksumite Empire, which it had been part of from approximately 4BC to AD 950...
and the Muslim
Muslim
A Muslim, also spelled Moslem, is an adherent of Islam, a monotheistic, Abrahamic religion based on the Quran, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God as revealed to prophet Muhammad. "Muslim" is the Arabic term for "submitter" .Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable...
rulers of Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
. Lasting almost seven hundred years it is by some measures the longest lasting treaty in history. The name comes either from the Egyptian's term for barter
Barter
Barter is a method of exchange by which goods or services are directly exchanged for other goods or services without using a medium of exchange, such as money. It is usually bilateral, but may be multilateral, and usually exists parallel to monetary systems in most developed countries, though to a...
or the Greco-Roman term for pact
Pact
A pact is a formal agreement.Pact, The Pact or PACT may also refer to:-PACT as an acronym:* Protein ACTivator of the interferon-induced protein kinase, a protein that activates protein kinase R...
.
Despite its longevity not much is clear about the baqt and almost all the information about it comes from Muslim sources. The Baqt was signed after the 651 Muslim invasion of Egypt. That year Abdallah ibn Abi Sarh led an army south against the Christian kingdoms of Nubia
Nubia
Nubia is a region along the Nile river, which is located in northern Sudan and southern Egypt.There were a number of small Nubian kingdoms throughout the Middle Ages, the last of which collapsed in 1504, when Nubia became divided between Egypt and the Sennar sultanate resulting in the Arabization...
. Later Islamic historians state that Nubia was not worth conquering and the expedition was simply to subordinate the region to Egypt. Earlier sources give the more likely story that the Arab armies met a rare defeat at the Battle of Dongola
Second Battle of Dongola
The Second Battle of Dongola or Siege of Dongola was a military engagement between early Arab-Egyptian forces of the Rashidun Caliphate and the Nubian-Christian forces of the Kingdom of Makuria in 652. The battle ended Muslim expansion into Nubia, establishing trade and a historic peace between the...
and only acceded to the Baqt when they realized that the conquest of the region would be difficult. The treaty was negotiated between Abi Sarh and the Makurian King Qalidurat.
There is no extant copy of the treaty they signed, and the earliest copies are several centuries after the fact and are quite varied. The treaty might not have been written at all and may have just been an oral agreement. Some sections of the baqt are clear:
- the Arabs would not attack Nubia and the Nubians would not attack Egypt
- the citizens of the two nations would be allowed to freely trade and travel between the two states and would be guaranteed safe passage while in the other nation
- immigration to and settlement in the other nation's lands was forbidden
- fugitives were to be extradited as were escaped slaves
- the Nubians were responsible for maintaining a mosqueMosqueA mosque is a place of worship for followers of Islam. The word is likely to have entered the English language through French , from Portuguese , from Spanish , and from Berber , ultimately originating in — . The Arabic word masjid literally means a place of prostration...
for Muslim visitors and residents - the EgyptiansEgyptiansEgyptians are nation an ethnic group made up of Mediterranean North Africans, the indigenous people of Egypt.Egyptian identity is closely tied to geography. The population of Egypt is concentrated in the lower Nile Valley, the small strip of cultivable land stretching from the First Cataract to...
had no obligation to protect the NubiansNubiansThe Nubians are an ethnic group originally from northern Sudan, and southern Egypt now inhabiting North Africa and some parts of East Africa....
from attacks by third parties
The most important provision was that 360 slave
Slavery
Slavery is a system under which people are treated as property to be bought and sold, and are forced to work. Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth, and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to demand compensation...
s per year were to be sent to Egypt. These slaves had to be of the highest quality with no old ones or children, they were to be a mix of male and female. In some reports an extra forty were due which were distributed among notables in Egypt.
Ibn Abd al-Hakam, one of the first historians to discuss the treaty, gives two different versions of the treaty. The first has only Nubia sending slaves north, thus symbolizing its subservience to Egypt. The second version adds an obligation of the Egyptians to also send goods south including wheat
Wheat
Wheat is a cereal grain, originally from the Levant region of the Near East, but now cultivated worldwide. In 2007 world production of wheat was 607 million tons, making it the third most-produced cereal after maize and rice...
and lentil
Lentil
The lentil is an edible pulse. It is a bushy annual plant of the legume family, grown for its lens-shaped seeds...
s in exchange for the slaves, this would put the two nations on a more equal footing.
This treaty was unprecedented in the history of the Arab conquests, being more similar to the arrangements the Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire during the periods of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, centred on the capital of Constantinople. Known simply as the Roman Empire or Romania to its inhabitants and neighbours, the Empire was the direct continuation of the Ancient Roman State...
sometimes made with its neighbours. It is also unmatched in that it largely blocked the spread of Islam and the Arabs for half a millennium. The Baqt caused some controversy among Islamic theologians
Islamic theology
Islamic theology is a branch of Islamic studies regarding the beliefs associated with the Islamic faith. Any religious belief system, or creed, can be considered an example of aqidah. However, this term has taken a significant technical usage in Islamic history and theology, denoting those...
as there was controversy over whether it violated the duty to expand the borders of Islam. Spaulding reports that the exchange of goods was a common diplomatic arrangement in Northeast Africa and the Nubians would have had long experience with such agreements.
The Baqt was not always without controversy and conflicts between the neighbours were not unheard of. In the 830s, Egypt plunged into civil war and King Zacharias III of Makuria
Zacharias III of Makuria
Zacharias III was ruler of the Nubian kingdom of Makuria. In 833 he ceased paying the Baqt to the rulers of Egypt, and prepared to fight the Abbasid Caliph al-Mu'tasim over the tribute...
halted payment of the Baqt. When Ibrahim gained firm control of Egypt he demanded resumption of the Baqt, and payment of arrears. Unable or unwilling to pay this large sum Zacharias sent his son and heir Georgios
Georgios I of Makuria
Georgios I was a ruler of the Nubian state of Makuria . The events about the king are preserved in the writings of the Egyptian historians Al-Maqrizi, el-Balawi and Ibn Taghribirdi...
on a long journey to Baghdad
Baghdad
Baghdad is the capital of Iraq, as well as the coterminous Baghdad Governorate. The population of Baghdad in 2011 is approximately 7,216,040...
in 835 to negotiate directly with the Caliph. This expedition was a great success and the arrears were canceled and the Baqt was altered so that it only had to be paid every three years.
The closest relations were during the Fatimid
Fatimid
The Fatimid Islamic Caliphate or al-Fāṭimiyyūn was a Berber Shia Muslim caliphate first centered in Tunisia and later in Egypt that ruled over varying areas of the Maghreb, Sudan, Sicily, the Levant, and Hijaz from 5 January 909 to 1171.The caliphate was ruled by the Fatimids, who established the...
period in Egypt. The Shi'ite Fatimids had few allies in the Arab world and Nubia was an important ally. The slaves sent from Nubia made up the backbone of the Fatimid army. Relations were worse under the Ayyubids and very poor under the Mamelukes, with full scale war eventually breaking out. Even after Makuria collapsed in the thirteenth century the Egyptians continued to insist upon its payment by the Muslim successor kingdoms in the region. The Baqt finally ended in the mid-fourteenth century with the complete collapse of organized government in the region.