Atonement (moral influence view)
Encyclopedia
The moral influence view of the atonement teaches that the purpose and work of Jesus Christ
was to bring positive moral change to humanity. This moral change came through the teachings and example of Jesus, the Christian movement he founded, and the inspiring effect of his martyrdom and resurrection. It is one of the oldest views of the atonement in Christian theology
and a prevalent view for most of Christian history (see below -- History: Early church -- for references).
, The Shepherd of Hermas
, and works by Clement of Rome, Ignatius of Antioch
, Polycarp
, Clement of Alexandria
Hippolytus of Rome, Origen
, Irenaeus
, and Arnobius
. Some writers also taught other atonement models in conjunction with it, but Wallace and Rusk claim that the majority of Christian writers in the second and third centuries AD expressed only the moral influence view.
split in the fourth century AD along a geographic and linguistic divide (the Latin West and Greek East), so too Christianity eventually divided between the western Catholic Church and the eastern Orthodox Church. Eastern Orthodox Christianity flourished in the Byzantine Empire
and a great many theologians composed extensive theological works on Christian doctrine. Byzantine theologians emphasized strongly the importance of moral transformation, and the moral influence view of the atonement can be found universally throughout their writings. Other theories of the atonement became popular during the Byzantine period, such as the ransom theory of atonement and Christus Victor
. These views of the atonement were usually added together with the moral influence view, and thus most theologians during the Byzantine period taught several views of atonement simultaneously. Since the East-West split, the Eastern Orthodox Church has continued to teach the moral influence theory of the atonement in combination with a number of other atonement theories.
In Western Christianity, Augustine's writings were extremely influential during the Medieval period
. As a result, the moral influence view of the atonement was advocated and taught by a large number Popes of medieval theologians - including Peter Abelard
and Peter Lombard
.
In the 11th century, Anselm of Canterbury
rejected Augustine's teaching on the ransom theory of atonement and instead proposed his own model, the satisfaction theory of atonement. His newly proposed satisfaction model generated a great deal of controversy among supporters of the moral influence view. Supporters of Anselm's ideas about atonement, such as Bernard of Clairvaux
, entered into public conflict with Peter Abelard and other supporters of the moral influence view.
in Western Christianity, the majority of the Reformers strongly rejected the moral influence view of the atonement in favor of penal substitution
. However, the Socinian
arm of the Reformation maintained a belief in the moral influence view of the atonement. Fausto Sozzini wrote a work defending and advocating the moral influence model at length. Socinianism was an early form of Unitarianism
and the Unitarian Church today maintains a moral influence view of the atonement.
The Reformation had little effect on atonement doctrines within Eastern Christianity, however. The Eastern Orthodox Church did not adopt penal substitution, and continued to teach the moral influence view.
. In the 19th and 20th century, it has been popular among liberal Protestant thinkers in the Anglican, Methodist, Lutheran and Presbyterian churches, including the Anglican theologian Hastings Rashdall
. A number of English theological works in the last hundred years have advocated and popularised the moral influence theory of atonement.
works to help people toward moral change. In the moral influence view, it is generally believed that God will judge the souls of the dead in the afterlife based on their moral character, attested to by their conduct (a belief that many Evangelical Protestants
reject). Most advocates of the view strongly endorse the concept of Free Will
, insisting that humans are responsible for their actions and capable of change. However, some advocates (e.g. Augustine) have held the view that humans are incapable of moral change themselves and require God to radically alter their psychology through the Holy Spirit
working in them. The moral influence model of atonement is usually associated with a minimal doctrine of Original Sin
or complete denial thereof, although not always (again Augustine is a notable exception).
Advocates of the moral influence over the centuries have ranged from those who fully affirm the Orthodox doctrine of the Trinity
and the fully divine nature of Jesus Christ, to those who claim that Jesus was fully human and not deity. The moral influence model stands somewhat separate from such questions about the divine nature of Christ. It tends to emphasize the following aspects of Christ' work:
The moral influence view can be combined with some of the other views of atonement. Indeed, Methodist theologian Vincent Taylor
, while regarding the moral influence theory of atonement as inadequate by itself, described the moral influence theory as the 'truth' that is the 'presupposition of any worthy doctrine of the Atonement'. In the early centuries of the church, the moral influence view focussed around the issue of how people can pass God's final judgment (namely through positive moral change). Some other atonement views, such as ransom from Satan, have nothing to say about final judgment and deal with other concerns. Such views can therefore be easily held in combination with the moral influence view.
ary view of atonement, as the two systems propose radically different criteria of salvation and judgment. The moral influence paradigm focuses on the moral change of people, leading to a positive final judgment for which the criteria focuses on inner moral character. By contrast, a penal substitutionary paradigm denies the saving value of human moral change. It focuses on faith in Christ and on his death on our behalf, leading to a positive final judgment based on what Christ has done for us and our trust in that - not on any positive moral qualities that we ourselves possess.
As a result of this inherent conflict, a strong division has remained since the Reformation between liberal Protestants (who typically adopt a moral influence view) and conservative Protestants (who typically adopt a penal substitutionary view). Debate between these positions has a tendency to focus on the following main issues:
Those opposed to the moral influence view have typically pointed to the following biblical themes:
Defences of penal substitution have typically focused on these passages and argued that they teach salvation by faith not works, and that Christ's death had a supernatural effect.
The recent New Perspective on Paul
has added significant support to a moral influence view of the atonement by reinterpreting many passages previously used against it. Many scholars now believe that Paul's teachings against works of the law referred only to ritualistic customs such as circumcision and dietary rules, not to moral good works in general. There has likewise been a great deal of discussion about what Paul means by 'faith', and in particular the view that the Greek word concerned generally meant 'faithfulness' is receiving widespread support. Moral influence adherents have pointed out that Paul's statements about salvation (i.e. moral change) through faith (i.e. faithfulness to Christ's teachings) are therefore not in conflict with a moral influence view, and instead support such a view.
Recent scholars analyzing ancient sacrificial systems and ancient concepts of martyrdom have argued that the concept of Jesus as a martyr accounts for the New Testament language regarding Christ's death, and that penal substitution
is not required to explain this language.
One notable criticism of penal substitution raised by the moral influence perspective concerns God's forgiveness. The moral influence framework depicts God as concerned about only the present and future states of people's moral character, and not their past states. God desires people to become more loving. When people truly change, God is no longer concerned with their previous character and thus is willing to freely forgive their previous actions. The moral influence framework thus teaches that God's forgiveness is free and conditional only on repentance (i.e. moral change). This link between repentance and forgiveness is well-attested to in the New Testament. By contrast, moral influence advocates argue that the penal substitutionary theory portrays God as unable or unwilling to forgive wrong actions and requiring that there be full and complete punishment for all past wrongs, regardless of repentance. They often critique this idea on biblical grounds, pointing to numerous biblical instances of forgiveness and verses that appear to teach that forgiveness depends on repentance. Many also argue that penal substitution's depiction of God as demanding full punishment for every crime regardless of repentance is morally reprehensible and does not reflect a loving, forgiving God.
. In fact, Abelard restated Augustine's view on the subject, who in turn was articulating the Christian doctrine current in his time.
The moral influence view is often misconstrued as teaching merely that Jesus willingly died on the cross to demonstrate his love and thus inspire people to follow him. The scope of the full moral influence view is much larger, however. The moral influence view does not focus primarily on the death of Jesus in the same way that penal substitution does. Instead, it focuses on the wider story of Christ's teachings, example, and the church movement he founded. His death is seen as inspirational within that context, but his death was not the whole goal in the way that penal substitution depicts it. The moral influence view depicts Jesus' death as a martyrdom, in which he was killed because of his teaching and leadership of a controversial movement. Jesus' death is thus understood as a consequence of his activity, and it gains its significance as part of the larger story of his life, death, and resurrection.
Yet, in conjunction with the ransom theory of atonement, it was likely the principal theological understanding of atonement in Christianity for the first thousand years of the Christian theology
, and traces of it remain in Thomistic
soteriology
and the soteriology of Eastern and Oriental Orthodoxy
.
Jesus
Jesus of Nazareth , commonly referred to as Jesus Christ or simply as Jesus or Christ, is the central figure of Christianity...
was to bring positive moral change to humanity. This moral change came through the teachings and example of Jesus, the Christian movement he founded, and the inspiring effect of his martyrdom and resurrection. It is one of the oldest views of the atonement in Christian theology
Christian theology
- Divisions of Christian theology :There are many methods of categorizing different approaches to Christian theology. For a historical analysis, see the main article on the History of Christian theology.- Sub-disciplines :...
and a prevalent view for most of Christian history (see below -- History: Early church -- for references).
Early church
Themes of moral transformation through God's redemptive love in Jesus were prevalent among writers in the early church, leading some scholars to claim that the moral influence theory was universally taught in the second and third centuries. See, for example: the Epistle to DiognetusEpistle to Diognetus
The Epistle of Mathetes to Diognetus is probably the earliest example of Christian apologetics, writings defending Christianity from its accusers...
, The Shepherd of Hermas
The Shepherd of Hermas
The Shepherd of Hermas is a Christian literary work of the 1st or 2nd century, considered a valuable book by many Christians, and considered canonical scripture by some of the early Church fathers such as Irenaeus. The Shepherd had great authority in the 2nd and 3rd centuries...
, and works by Clement of Rome, Ignatius of Antioch
Ignatius of Antioch
Ignatius of Antioch was among the Apostolic Fathers, was the third Bishop of Antioch, and was a student of John the Apostle. En route to his martyrdom in Rome, Ignatius wrote a series of letters which have been preserved as an example of very early Christian theology...
, Polycarp
Polycarp
Saint Polycarp was a 2nd century Christian bishop of Smyrna. According to the Martyrdom of Polycarp, he died a martyr, bound and burned at the stake, then stabbed when the fire failed to touch him...
, Clement of Alexandria
Clement of Alexandria
Titus Flavius Clemens , known as Clement of Alexandria , was a Christian theologian and the head of the noted Catechetical School of Alexandria. Clement is best remembered as the teacher of Origen...
Hippolytus of Rome, Origen
Origen
Origen , or Origen Adamantius, 184/5–253/4, was an early Christian Alexandrian scholar and theologian, and one of the most distinguished writers of the early Church. As early as the fourth century, his orthodoxy was suspect, in part because he believed in the pre-existence of souls...
, Irenaeus
Irenaeus
Saint Irenaeus , was Bishop of Lugdunum in Gaul, then a part of the Roman Empire . He was an early church father and apologist, and his writings were formative in the early development of Christian theology...
, and Arnobius
Arnobius
Arnobius of Sicca was an Early Christian apologist, during the reign of Diocletian . According to Jerome's Chronicle, Arnobius, before his conversion, was a distinguished Numidian rhetorician at Sicca Veneria , a major Christian center in Proconsular Africa, and owed his conversion to a...
. Some writers also taught other atonement models in conjunction with it, but Wallace and Rusk claim that the majority of Christian writers in the second and third centuries AD expressed only the moral influence view.
Eastern Christianity
As the Roman EmpireRoman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
split in the fourth century AD along a geographic and linguistic divide (the Latin West and Greek East), so too Christianity eventually divided between the western Catholic Church and the eastern Orthodox Church. Eastern Orthodox Christianity flourished in the Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire during the periods of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, centred on the capital of Constantinople. Known simply as the Roman Empire or Romania to its inhabitants and neighbours, the Empire was the direct continuation of the Ancient Roman State...
and a great many theologians composed extensive theological works on Christian doctrine. Byzantine theologians emphasized strongly the importance of moral transformation, and the moral influence view of the atonement can be found universally throughout their writings. Other theories of the atonement became popular during the Byzantine period, such as the ransom theory of atonement and Christus Victor
Christus Victor
The term Christus Victor refers to a Christian understanding of the atonement which views Christ's death as the means by which the powers of evil, which held humankind under their dominion, were defeated...
. These views of the atonement were usually added together with the moral influence view, and thus most theologians during the Byzantine period taught several views of atonement simultaneously. Since the East-West split, the Eastern Orthodox Church has continued to teach the moral influence theory of the atonement in combination with a number of other atonement theories.
Augustine and the Middle Ages in Western Christianity
Augustine held the moral influence theory of the atonement as his main atonement theory. He emphasized it repeatedly in key points throughout his writings. Augustine also taught the ransom from Satan model of the atonement in some of his writings and sermons in addition to the moral influence view.In Western Christianity, Augustine's writings were extremely influential during the Medieval period
Middle Ages
The Middle Ages is a periodization of European history from the 5th century to the 15th century. The Middle Ages follows the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and precedes the Early Modern Era. It is the middle period of a three-period division of Western history: Classic, Medieval and Modern...
. As a result, the moral influence view of the atonement was advocated and taught by a large number Popes of medieval theologians - including Peter Abelard
Peter Abelard
Peter Abelard was a medieval French scholastic philosopher, theologian and preeminent logician. The story of his affair with and love for Héloïse has become legendary...
and Peter Lombard
Peter Lombard
Peter Lombard was a scholastic theologian and bishop and author of Four Books of Sentences, which became the standard textbook of theology, for which he is also known as Magister Sententiarum-Biography:Peter Lombard was born in Lumellogno , in...
.
In the 11th century, Anselm of Canterbury
Anselm of Canterbury
Anselm of Canterbury , also called of Aosta for his birthplace, and of Bec for his home monastery, was a Benedictine monk, a philosopher, and a prelate of the church who held the office of Archbishop of Canterbury from 1093 to 1109...
rejected Augustine's teaching on the ransom theory of atonement and instead proposed his own model, the satisfaction theory of atonement. His newly proposed satisfaction model generated a great deal of controversy among supporters of the moral influence view. Supporters of Anselm's ideas about atonement, such as Bernard of Clairvaux
Bernard of Clairvaux
Bernard of Clairvaux, O.Cist was a French abbot and the primary builder of the reforming Cistercian order.After the death of his mother, Bernard sought admission into the Cistercian order. Three years later, he was sent to found a new abbey at an isolated clearing in a glen known as the Val...
, entered into public conflict with Peter Abelard and other supporters of the moral influence view.
The Reformation
During the ReformationReformation
- Movements :* Protestant Reformation, an attempt by Martin Luther to reform the Roman Catholic Church that resulted in a schism, and grew into a wider movement...
in Western Christianity, the majority of the Reformers strongly rejected the moral influence view of the atonement in favor of penal substitution
Penal substitution
Penal substitution is a theory of the atonement within Christian theology, developed with the Reformed tradition. It argues that Christ, by his own sacrificial choice, was punished in the place of sinners , thus satisfying the demands of justice so God can justly forgive the sins...
. However, the Socinian
Socinianism
Socinianism is a system of Christian doctrine named for Fausto Sozzini , which was developed among the Polish Brethren in the Minor Reformed Church of Poland during the 15th and 16th centuries and embraced also by the Unitarian Church of Transylvania during the same period...
arm of the Reformation maintained a belief in the moral influence view of the atonement. Fausto Sozzini wrote a work defending and advocating the moral influence model at length. Socinianism was an early form of Unitarianism
Unitarianism
Unitarianism is a Christian theological movement, named for its understanding of God as one person, in direct contrast to Trinitarianism which defines God as three persons coexisting consubstantially as one in being....
and the Unitarian Church today maintains a moral influence view of the atonement.
The Reformation had little effect on atonement doctrines within Eastern Christianity, however. The Eastern Orthodox Church did not adopt penal substitution, and continued to teach the moral influence view.
Since the Reformation
During the 18th century, versions of the moral influence view found overwhelming support among German theologians, most notably the Enlightenment philosopher Immanuel KantImmanuel Kant
Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher from Königsberg , researching, lecturing and writing on philosophy and anthropology at the end of the 18th Century Enlightenment....
. In the 19th and 20th century, it has been popular among liberal Protestant thinkers in the Anglican, Methodist, Lutheran and Presbyterian churches, including the Anglican theologian Hastings Rashdall
Hastings Rashdall
Hastings Rashdall was an English philosopher who expounded a theory known as ideal utilitarianism.Son of an Anglican priest, he was educated at Harrow and received a scholarship for New College, Oxford...
. A number of English theological works in the last hundred years have advocated and popularised the moral influence theory of atonement.
Doctrine
The moral influence doctrine of atonement is typically taught within a paradigm of salvation which focuses on positive moral change as the core of Christianity. God is depicted as concerned with whether a person's inner character is good or evil (where 'good' refers primarily to unselfish love toward others). In this system, God works to bring positive moral change within the hearts of individuals and to transform societies to become more loving. He acted to bring such change through the teachings of the Old Testament Law, the Jewish Prophets, and the teaching and example of Jesus. The inspiring power of Jesus' martyrdom and subsequent resurrection are also often cited as catalysts for moral change. Many holding a moral influence view also believe that the Holy SpiritHoly Spirit
Holy Spirit is a term introduced in English translations of the Hebrew Bible, but understood differently in the main Abrahamic religions.While the general concept of a "Spirit" that permeates the cosmos has been used in various religions Holy Spirit is a term introduced in English translations of...
works to help people toward moral change. In the moral influence view, it is generally believed that God will judge the souls of the dead in the afterlife based on their moral character, attested to by their conduct (a belief that many Evangelical Protestants
Evangelicalism
Evangelicalism is a Protestant Christian movement which began in Great Britain in the 1730s and gained popularity in the United States during the series of Great Awakenings of the 18th and 19th century.Its key commitments are:...
reject). Most advocates of the view strongly endorse the concept of Free Will
Free will
"To make my own decisions whether I am successful or not due to uncontrollable forces" -Troy MorrisonA pragmatic definition of free willFree will is the ability of agents to make choices free from certain kinds of constraints. The existence of free will and its exact nature and definition have long...
, insisting that humans are responsible for their actions and capable of change. However, some advocates (e.g. Augustine) have held the view that humans are incapable of moral change themselves and require God to radically alter their psychology through the Holy Spirit
Holy Spirit
Holy Spirit is a term introduced in English translations of the Hebrew Bible, but understood differently in the main Abrahamic religions.While the general concept of a "Spirit" that permeates the cosmos has been used in various religions Holy Spirit is a term introduced in English translations of...
working in them. The moral influence model of atonement is usually associated with a minimal doctrine of Original Sin
Original sin
Original sin is, according to a Christian theological doctrine, humanity's state of sin resulting from the Fall of Man. This condition has been characterized in many ways, ranging from something as insignificant as a slight deficiency, or a tendency toward sin yet without collective guilt, referred...
or complete denial thereof, although not always (again Augustine is a notable exception).
Advocates of the moral influence over the centuries have ranged from those who fully affirm the Orthodox doctrine of the Trinity
Trinity
The Christian doctrine of the Trinity defines God as three divine persons : the Father, the Son , and the Holy Spirit. The three persons are distinct yet coexist in unity, and are co-equal, co-eternal and consubstantial . Put another way, the three persons of the Trinity are of one being...
and the fully divine nature of Jesus Christ, to those who claim that Jesus was fully human and not deity. The moral influence model stands somewhat separate from such questions about the divine nature of Christ. It tends to emphasize the following aspects of Christ' work:
- Teacher and Prophet - a majority of the Gospel accounts focus on Jesus' teachings. These teachings focus largely on individual and social morality, and encourage love.
- Example - many New Testament passages speak of imitating Christ and following his example. The Gospel accounts provide a rich body of material from which early Christians drew examples.
- Founder and Leader - the Church movement has a large role in the moral influence view, as its purpose is to continue to morally transform individuals and societies.
- Martyr - Jesus' crucifixion is viewed as a martyrdom, in which he was killed as a consequence of his activity to bring moral transformation.
The moral influence view can be combined with some of the other views of atonement. Indeed, Methodist theologian Vincent Taylor
Vincent Taylor (theologian)
Reverend Dr Vincent Taylor D.D., F.B.A. was a Methodist Biblical scholar and theologian. He was elected to the Fellowship of the British Academy in 1954, specializing in theology. During his career, he was both Principal of Wesley College, Headingley, Leeds and, from 1930–58, Ferens Professor of...
, while regarding the moral influence theory of atonement as inadequate by itself, described the moral influence theory as the 'truth' that is the 'presupposition of any worthy doctrine of the Atonement'. In the early centuries of the church, the moral influence view focussed around the issue of how people can pass God's final judgment (namely through positive moral change). Some other atonement views, such as ransom from Satan, have nothing to say about final judgment and deal with other concerns. Such views can therefore be easily held in combination with the moral influence view.
Conflict with penal substitution
The moral influence view stands in conflict with a penal substitutionPenal substitution
Penal substitution is a theory of the atonement within Christian theology, developed with the Reformed tradition. It argues that Christ, by his own sacrificial choice, was punished in the place of sinners , thus satisfying the demands of justice so God can justly forgive the sins...
ary view of atonement, as the two systems propose radically different criteria of salvation and judgment. The moral influence paradigm focuses on the moral change of people, leading to a positive final judgment for which the criteria focuses on inner moral character. By contrast, a penal substitutionary paradigm denies the saving value of human moral change. It focuses on faith in Christ and on his death on our behalf, leading to a positive final judgment based on what Christ has done for us and our trust in that - not on any positive moral qualities that we ourselves possess.
As a result of this inherent conflict, a strong division has remained since the Reformation between liberal Protestants (who typically adopt a moral influence view) and conservative Protestants (who typically adopt a penal substitutionary view). Debate between these positions has a tendency to focus on the following main issues:
Interpretation of biblical texts
Both sides tend to believe that their position is taught by the Bible. Advocates of the moral influence view point to:- The large volume of teaching in the Gospels focused on morality.
- The large quantity of moral exhortation in the New Testament letters.
- The 30+ New Testament passages referring to final judgment that all appear to depict a final judgment according to moral conduct.
- The numerous passages throughout the New Testament which encourage moral change and provide the goal of passing God's final judgment as the incentive.
- The various passages in the New Testament letters which speak of the effect of Jesus' life and death on us in terms of moral change.
Those opposed to the moral influence view have typically pointed to the following biblical themes:
- Paul's statements that salvation is by 'faith'.
- Paul's teaching against 'works of the law'.
- Passages speaking of the effects of Christ's death, often using language from the Jewish sacrificial system.
Defences of penal substitution have typically focused on these passages and argued that they teach salvation by faith not works, and that Christ's death had a supernatural effect.
The recent New Perspective on Paul
New Perspective on Paul
The "New Perspective on Paul" is a significant shift in the way some scholars, especially Protestant scholars, interpret the writings of the Apostle Paul.-Description:Since the Protestant Reformation The "New Perspective on Paul" is a significant shift in the way some scholars, especially...
has added significant support to a moral influence view of the atonement by reinterpreting many passages previously used against it. Many scholars now believe that Paul's teachings against works of the law referred only to ritualistic customs such as circumcision and dietary rules, not to moral good works in general. There has likewise been a great deal of discussion about what Paul means by 'faith', and in particular the view that the Greek word concerned generally meant 'faithfulness' is receiving widespread support. Moral influence adherents have pointed out that Paul's statements about salvation (i.e. moral change) through faith (i.e. faithfulness to Christ's teachings) are therefore not in conflict with a moral influence view, and instead support such a view.
Recent scholars analyzing ancient sacrificial systems and ancient concepts of martyrdom have argued that the concept of Jesus as a martyr accounts for the New Testament language regarding Christ's death, and that penal substitution
Penal substitution
Penal substitution is a theory of the atonement within Christian theology, developed with the Reformed tradition. It argues that Christ, by his own sacrificial choice, was punished in the place of sinners , thus satisfying the demands of justice so God can justly forgive the sins...
is not required to explain this language.
Historical evidence
Advocates of the moral influence view often point to the strong history of Christian belief in the moral influence view, as compared to the relatively recent appearance of the penal substitutionary view. Christian writings from the second, third and fourth centuries AD testify to the universality of the moral influence view among Christians during that the first few centuries AD (see above). By contrast, it has long been recognized that penal substitution was not taught in the early church. Penal substitution did not emerge until after the 11th century AD. It is therefore argued that the Bible writers were very unlikely to have taught penal substitution. If they had taught penal substitution, it could be expected that their teaching would have been passed on by word of mouth, and that the writings of Christians in the second and third centuries AD would attest to it. Moral influence advocates also argue that penal substitutionary teaching represents an historical departure from the Christian faith.Criticisms of penal substitution
Moral influence advocates typically point to a number of logical and biblical problems with Penal Substitution, which are seen as weakening the case for penal substitution and correspondingly strengthening the case for the moral influence view.One notable criticism of penal substitution raised by the moral influence perspective concerns God's forgiveness. The moral influence framework depicts God as concerned about only the present and future states of people's moral character, and not their past states. God desires people to become more loving. When people truly change, God is no longer concerned with their previous character and thus is willing to freely forgive their previous actions. The moral influence framework thus teaches that God's forgiveness is free and conditional only on repentance (i.e. moral change). This link between repentance and forgiveness is well-attested to in the New Testament. By contrast, moral influence advocates argue that the penal substitutionary theory portrays God as unable or unwilling to forgive wrong actions and requiring that there be full and complete punishment for all past wrongs, regardless of repentance. They often critique this idea on biblical grounds, pointing to numerous biblical instances of forgiveness and verses that appear to teach that forgiveness depends on repentance. Many also argue that penal substitution's depiction of God as demanding full punishment for every crime regardless of repentance is morally reprehensible and does not reflect a loving, forgiving God.
Common misconceptions about the moral influence view
It is often wrongly claimed that the moral influence view originated with Peter AbelardPeter Abelard
Peter Abelard was a medieval French scholastic philosopher, theologian and preeminent logician. The story of his affair with and love for Héloïse has become legendary...
. In fact, Abelard restated Augustine's view on the subject, who in turn was articulating the Christian doctrine current in his time.
The moral influence view is often misconstrued as teaching merely that Jesus willingly died on the cross to demonstrate his love and thus inspire people to follow him. The scope of the full moral influence view is much larger, however. The moral influence view does not focus primarily on the death of Jesus in the same way that penal substitution does. Instead, it focuses on the wider story of Christ's teachings, example, and the church movement he founded. His death is seen as inspirational within that context, but his death was not the whole goal in the way that penal substitution depicts it. The moral influence view depicts Jesus' death as a martyrdom, in which he was killed because of his teaching and leadership of a controversial movement. Jesus' death is thus understood as a consequence of his activity, and it gains its significance as part of the larger story of his life, death, and resurrection.
Common criticisms of the moral influence view
The following are some of the criticisms and objections commonly made, fairly or unfairly, against the moral influence view:- It underestimates the seriousness of sin.
- It teaches that humans have to save themselves.
- It teaches salvation by moral effort alone.
- It does not support the uniqueness of Christianity.
- It denies the essential importance of the passion and death of Jesus.
- It underestimates the wrath of God against sin.
- It contradicts various biblical passages.
Yet, in conjunction with the ransom theory of atonement, it was likely the principal theological understanding of atonement in Christianity for the first thousand years of the Christian theology
Christian theology
- Divisions of Christian theology :There are many methods of categorizing different approaches to Christian theology. For a historical analysis, see the main article on the History of Christian theology.- Sub-disciplines :...
, and traces of it remain in Thomistic
Thomism
Thomism is the philosophical school that arose as a legacy of the work and thought of St. Thomas Aquinas, philosopher, theologian, and Doctor of the Church. In philosophy, his commentaries on Aristotle are his most lasting contribution...
soteriology
Soteriology
The branch of Christian theology that deals with salvation and redemption is called Soteriology. It is derived from the Greek sōtērion + English -logy....
and the soteriology of Eastern and Oriental Orthodoxy
Oriental Orthodoxy
Oriental Orthodoxy is the faith of those Eastern Christian Churches that recognize only three ecumenical councils — the First Council of Nicaea, the First Council of Constantinople and the First Council of Ephesus. They rejected the dogmatic definitions of the Council of Chalcedon...
.
External links
- A. J. Wallace and R. D. Rusk, Moral Transformation: The Original Christian Paradigm of Salvation A recent defence of this perspective.
- "Historical Theories of Atonement" Theopedia gives a brief treatment of the historical and modern theories of atonement from a Calvinistic perspective.
- "The Moral Theory of Atonement" Website gives an explanation of this perspective with common criticisms listed.
- "The Moral Theory" section III.9.3 from Charles HodgeCharles HodgeCharles Hodge was the principal of Princeton Theological Seminary between 1851 and 1878. A Presbyterian theologian, he was a leading exponent of historical Calvinism in America during the 19th century. He was deeply rooted in the Scottish philosophy of Common Sense Realism...
's Systematic Theology, describing the view and arguing against it.