Artificial photosynthesis
Encyclopedia
Artificial photosynthesis is a chemical process
that replicates the natural process of photosynthesis
, a process that converts sunlight
, water
, and carbon dioxide
into carbohydrates and oxygen
. The term is commonly used to refer to any scheme for capturing and storing the energy from sunlight in chemical bonds of a fuel. Splitting water
, or photoelectrolysis
, is one form of artificial photosynthesis that converts water into hydrogen
and oxygen using sunlight.
The photosynthetic reaction can be divided into two half-reaction
s (oxidation and reduction
), each of which is essential to producing fuel
. In plant photosynthesis, water molecules are photo-oxidized to release oxygen and proton
s. The second stage of plant photosynthesis (also known as the Calvin-Benson cycle) is a light-independent reaction
that converts carbon dioxide into glucose
. Researchers in artificial photosynthesis are developing catalysts to perform both of these reactions separately. These catalysts must be able to react quickly and absorb a large percentage of solar photons.
discovers the Honda-Fujishima effect in titanium dioxide
, which can be used for hydrolysis
.
2000: CSIRO
press release on Artificial Photosynthesis.
2003: Brookhaven National Laboratory
press release.
2006: SLAC on photogeneration cell
s.
2008: MIT Chemist and head of the Solar Revolution Project Daniel G. Nocera
, and postdoctoral fellow Matthew Kanan may have significantly reduced the material cost of splitting water into its constituent components by substituting platinum with cobalt and phosphate. This breakthrough may be combined with the work being done by Monash University
Chemist Bjorn Winther-Jensen to develop a low cost conducting polymer with a large surface area and resistance to operational degradation. Such research may herald fuel cells that can perform useful work at lower energy thresholds, lower cost, and over a longer lifecycle.
2008: Princeton chemistry professor Andrew B. Bocarsly
reports the direct conversion of carbon dioxide and water to methanol using solar energy.
2009: F. del Valle and K. Domen, in a Mexican, Japanese and Spanish publication show the impact of the thermal treatment in a closed atmosphere using Cd1-xZnxS photocatalysts. Cd1-xZnxS solid solution reports incredibly high activity in hydrogen
production from water splitting under sunlight irradiation.
2009: Leibniz Institute for Catalysis reports inexpensive iron carbonyl complexes.
2009:At the University of East Anglia
, a gold electrode covered with layers of indium phosphide nanoparticles allows for solar to hydrogen conversion with 60% efficiency.
2010: Mitsubishi is developing its own artificial photosynthesis by using sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to "create the carbon building blocks from which resins, plastics and fibers can be synthesized."
2011: UCSC elemental doping and quantum dot sensitization show promise for solar hydrogen generation.
. Having studied this complex, researchers have made catalysts such as blue dimer to mimic its function, but these catalysts were very inefficient.
The carbohydrate-converting catalysts used in nature are known as hydrogenase
s. Catalysts invented by engineers to mimic the hydrogenases
include a catalyst by Cédric Tard, the rhodium atom catalyst from MIT
, and the cobalt
catalyst from MIT. The United States Air Force
funds Dr. Daniel Nocera of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
in the field.
and two electrons. It then delivers the hydride to an area where they await the production of carbohydrates. In a natural photosynthetic cycle, the coenzyme is recyclable, but this process cannot yet be replicated in a laboratory.
Right now the main aspiration for scientists is to obtain an NADPH-inspired catalyst capable of recreating the natural cyclic process. Utilizing light, hydride
donors will be regenerated as well as produced, where the molecules are continuously used in a closed cycle. Brookhaven chemists are now using a ruthenium
-based complex to serve as the acting model. The complex is proven to perform correspondingly with NADP+/NADPH, behaving as the foundation for the proton and two electrons needed to convert acetone
to isopropanol.
Currently the Brookhaven researchers are aiming to find ways to have light generate the hydride donors. The general idea is to use this theory to produce fuels from carbon dioxide
.
This process is assisted by photocatalysts suspended directly in water instead of using a combination of a photovoltaic and electrolytic system, therefor the number of steps is cut in half over conventional technology, making it more efficient than Photoelectrochemical
water splitting
Disadvantages include:
sources — hydroelectric, solar photovoltaic, geothermal, and wind — which produce electricity directly, with no fuel intermediate.
As such, artificial photosynthesis may become a very important source of fuel for transportation. Unlike biomass
energy, it does not require arable land, and so it need not compete with the food supply.
Since the light-independent phase of photosynthesis fixes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, artificial photosynthesis may provide an economical mechanism for carbon sequestration, reducing the pool of CO2 in the atmosphere, and thus mitigating its effect on global warming
. Specifically, net reduction of CO2 will occur when artificial photosynthesis is used to produce carbon-based fuel which is stored indefinitely.
At the 15th meeting of the International Congress of Photosynthesis Research (ISPR) in Beijing 27 August 2010 a proposal was made for a macroscience Global Artificial Photosynthesis (GAP) Project-seven models being presented for evaluation. An international conference on the subject took place between 14–18 August 2011 at Lord Howe Island under the auspices of the UNESCO
Natural Sciences Sector and subsequent meetings are planned. The meeting featured presentations from Peidong Yang
from the Joint Center on Artificial Photosynthesis (JCAP), Dan Nocera from MIT, Gary Brudvig from Yale, David Tiede (Argonne Nat Lab); Craig Hill (Emory); Chris Moser (Penn); Gabriela Schlau-Cohen (Berkeley); David Wendell (Cincinnati); Richard Watt (Utah), Ann Magnuson (Uppsala), Johannes Messinger (Ume Sweden); David Coker (Dublin); Duncan Gregory (Edinburgh) Jörg Matysik (Leiden), Arvi Freiberg (Tartu); Eva-Mari Aro (Finland) Roberta Croce and Elisabet Romero (VU Amsterdam), Klaus Hellgardt (Imperial Coll. London), Naoki Aratani (Kyoto); Nobuo Kamiya (Osaka); Shunichi Fukuzumi (Osaka); Ryu Abe (Hokkaido) Hongxian Han (Dalian), Paul Mulvaney (Melb), Ron Pace, Elmars Krausz (ANU), David Officer and Gerard Sweigers (Wgong) and Michael Kirby (judge). It has been argued that photosynthesis in its natural or artificial forms should be considered the common heritage of humanity.
Chemical process
In a "scientific" sense, a chemical process is a method or means of somehow changing one or more chemicals or chemical compounds. Such a chemical process can occur by itself or be caused by somebody. Such a chemical process commonly involves a chemical reaction of some sort...
that replicates the natural process of photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is a chemical process that converts carbon dioxide into organic compounds, especially sugars, using the energy from sunlight. Photosynthesis occurs in plants, algae, and many species of bacteria, but not in archaea. Photosynthetic organisms are called photoautotrophs, since they can...
, a process that converts sunlight
Sunlight
Sunlight, in the broad sense, is the total frequency spectrum of electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun. On Earth, sunlight is filtered through the Earth's atmosphere, and solar radiation is obvious as daylight when the Sun is above the horizon.When the direct solar radiation is not blocked...
, water
Water
Water is a chemical substance with the chemical formula H2O. A water molecule contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms connected by covalent bonds. Water is a liquid at ambient conditions, but it often co-exists on Earth with its solid state, ice, and gaseous state . Water also exists in a...
, and carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a naturally occurring chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom...
into carbohydrates and oxygen
Oxygen
Oxygen is the element with atomic number 8 and represented by the symbol O. Its name derives from the Greek roots ὀξύς and -γενής , because at the time of naming, it was mistakenly thought that all acids required oxygen in their composition...
. The term is commonly used to refer to any scheme for capturing and storing the energy from sunlight in chemical bonds of a fuel. Splitting water
Water splitting
Water splitting is the general term for a chemical reaction in which water is separated into oxygen and hydrogen. Efficient and economical water splitting would be a key technology component of a hydrogen economy. Various techniques for water splitting have been issued in water splitting patents in...
, or photoelectrolysis
Photoelectrolysis
Photoelectrolysis occurs in a photoelectrochemical cell when light is used for electrolysis. In other words, photoelectrolysis is the conversion of light into a current, and then the division of a molecule using that current....
, is one form of artificial photosynthesis that converts water into hydrogen
Hydrogen
Hydrogen is the chemical element with atomic number 1. It is represented by the symbol H. With an average atomic weight of , hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant chemical element, constituting roughly 75% of the Universe's chemical elemental mass. Stars in the main sequence are mainly...
and oxygen using sunlight.
The photosynthetic reaction can be divided into two half-reaction
Half-reaction
A half reaction is either the oxidation or reduction reaction component of a redox reaction. A half reaction is obtained by considering the change in oxidation states of individual substances involved in the redox reaction.-Example:...
s (oxidation and reduction
Reduction
Reduction, reduced, or reduce may refer to:- Chemistry :* Reduction, part of a reduction-oxidation reaction where oxygen is being removed from a compound.** Reduced gas, a gas with a low oxidation number...
), each of which is essential to producing fuel
Fuel
Fuel is any material that stores energy that can later be extracted to perform mechanical work in a controlled manner. Most fuels used by humans undergo combustion, a redox reaction in which a combustible substance releases energy after it ignites and reacts with the oxygen in the air...
. In plant photosynthesis, water molecules are photo-oxidized to release oxygen and proton
Proton
The proton is a subatomic particle with the symbol or and a positive electric charge of 1 elementary charge. One or more protons are present in the nucleus of each atom, along with neutrons. The number of protons in each atom is its atomic number....
s. The second stage of plant photosynthesis (also known as the Calvin-Benson cycle) is a light-independent reaction
Light-independent reaction
The light-independent reactions of photosynthesis are chemical reactions that convert carbon dioxide and other compounds into glucose. These reactions occur in the stroma, the fluid-filled area of a chloroplast outside of the thylakoid membranes. These reactions take the light-dependent reactions...
that converts carbon dioxide into glucose
Glucose
Glucose is a simple sugar and an important carbohydrate in biology. Cells use it as the primary source of energy and a metabolic intermediate...
. Researchers in artificial photosynthesis are developing catalysts to perform both of these reactions separately. These catalysts must be able to react quickly and absorb a large percentage of solar photons.
History
1967: Akira FujishimaAkira Fujishima
is a Japanese chemist, professor emeritus, University of Tokyo known for significant contributions to the discovery and research of photocatalytic and superhydrophilic properties of titanium dioxide .-Career and research:...
discovers the Honda-Fujishima effect in titanium dioxide
Titanium dioxide
Titanium dioxide, also known as titanium oxide or titania, is the naturally occurring oxide of titanium, chemical formula . When used as a pigment, it is called titanium white, Pigment White 6, or CI 77891. Generally it comes in two different forms, rutile and anatase. It has a wide range of...
, which can be used for hydrolysis
Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction during which molecules of water are split into hydrogen cations and hydroxide anions in the process of a chemical mechanism. It is the type of reaction that is used to break down certain polymers, especially those made by condensation polymerization...
.
2000: CSIRO
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation is the national government body for scientific research in Australia...
press release on Artificial Photosynthesis.
2003: Brookhaven National Laboratory
Brookhaven National Laboratory
Brookhaven National Laboratory , is a United States national laboratory located in Upton, New York on Long Island, and was formally established in 1947 at the site of Camp Upton, a former U.S. Army base...
press release.
2006: SLAC on photogeneration cell
Photoelectrochemical cell
Photoelectrochemical cells or PECs are solar cells which generate electrical energy from light, including visible light. Some photoelectrochemical cells simply produce electrical energy, while others produce hydrogen in a process similar to the electrolysis of water.-Photogeneration cell:In this...
s.
2008: MIT Chemist and head of the Solar Revolution Project Daniel G. Nocera
Daniel G. Nocera
Daniel George Nocera is an American chemist and university professor.-Career:Nocera received a B.S. degree in Chemistry from Rutgers University in 1979. He received a Ph.D. degree in Chemistry from the California Institute of Technology in 1984, after working with Professor Harry B...
, and postdoctoral fellow Matthew Kanan may have significantly reduced the material cost of splitting water into its constituent components by substituting platinum with cobalt and phosphate. This breakthrough may be combined with the work being done by Monash University
Monash University
Monash University is a public university based in Melbourne, Victoria. It was founded in 1958 and is the second oldest university in the state. Monash is a member of Australia's Group of Eight and the ASAIHL....
Chemist Bjorn Winther-Jensen to develop a low cost conducting polymer with a large surface area and resistance to operational degradation. Such research may herald fuel cells that can perform useful work at lower energy thresholds, lower cost, and over a longer lifecycle.
2008: Princeton chemistry professor Andrew B. Bocarsly
Andrew B. Bocarsly
Andrew B. Bocarsly is currently a professor at Princeton University, New Jersey. His primary research interests lie in physical inorganic chemistry. He has facilitated various scientific research in electrochemistry, photochemistry, solids state chemistry and fuel cells.-Education :Andrew B...
reports the direct conversion of carbon dioxide and water to methanol using solar energy.
2009: F. del Valle and K. Domen, in a Mexican, Japanese and Spanish publication show the impact of the thermal treatment in a closed atmosphere using Cd1-xZnxS photocatalysts. Cd1-xZnxS solid solution reports incredibly high activity in hydrogen
Hydrogen
Hydrogen is the chemical element with atomic number 1. It is represented by the symbol H. With an average atomic weight of , hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant chemical element, constituting roughly 75% of the Universe's chemical elemental mass. Stars in the main sequence are mainly...
production from water splitting under sunlight irradiation.
2009: Leibniz Institute for Catalysis reports inexpensive iron carbonyl complexes.
2009:At the University of East Anglia
University of East Anglia
The University of East Anglia is a public research university based in Norwich, United Kingdom. It was established in 1963, and is a founder-member of the 1994 Group of research-intensive universities.-History:...
, a gold electrode covered with layers of indium phosphide nanoparticles allows for solar to hydrogen conversion with 60% efficiency.
2010: Mitsubishi is developing its own artificial photosynthesis by using sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to "create the carbon building blocks from which resins, plastics and fibers can be synthesized."
2011: UCSC elemental doping and quantum dot sensitization show promise for solar hydrogen generation.
- The Joint Center for Artificial Photosynthesis is set up by Caltech and Lawrence Berkeley National LaboratoryLawrence Berkeley National LaboratoryThe Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , is a U.S. Department of Energy national laboratory conducting unclassified scientific research. It is located on the grounds of the University of California, Berkeley, in the Berkeley Hills above the central campus...
and is funded by DOEUnited States Department of EnergyThe United States Department of Energy is a Cabinet-level department of the United States government concerned with the United States' policies regarding energy and safety in handling nuclear material...
as one of its Energy Innovation Hubs.
- MIT chemist, Daniel Nocera and his research team announce the first practical artificial leaf. Speaking at the 241st National Meeting of the American Chemical Society, they described an advanced solar cell the size of a poker card that mimics photosynthesis, with around 10 times the efficiency of photosynthesis. They claim that it is made of inexpensive materials that are widely available, works under simple conditions and is highly stable. In laboratory studies, they show that an artificial leaf prototype could operate continuously for at least 45 hours without a drop in activity.
Photoelectrochemical cells
Research is being done into finding catalysts that can convert water, carbon dioxide, and sunlight to carbohydrates. For the first type of catalysts, nature usually uses the oxygen evolving complexOxygen evolving complex
The oxygen-evolving complex, also known as the water-splitting complex, is a water-oxidizing enzyme involved in the photooxidation of water during the light reactions of photosynthesis. Based on a widely accepted theory from 1970 by Kok, the complex can exist in 5 states: S0 to S4. Photons trapped...
. Having studied this complex, researchers have made catalysts such as blue dimer to mimic its function, but these catalysts were very inefficient.
The carbohydrate-converting catalysts used in nature are known as hydrogenase
Hydrogenase
A hydrogenase is an enzyme that catalyses the reversible oxidation of molecular hydrogen . Hydrogenases play a vital role in anaerobic metabolism....
s. Catalysts invented by engineers to mimic the hydrogenases
Hydrogenase mimic
-Overview:The fields of molecular biology and inorganic chemistry overlap in the study of metalloenzymes in the form of enzyme mimics among other. The advantage of indirect modeling or enzyme mimicry is high-resolution crystal structures and well-defined spectral data from which comparisons can be...
include a catalyst by Cédric Tard, the rhodium atom catalyst from MIT
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a private research university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts. MIT has five schools and one college, containing a total of 32 academic departments, with a strong emphasis on scientific and technological education and research.Founded in 1861 in...
, and the cobalt
Cobalt
Cobalt is a chemical element with symbol Co and atomic number 27. It is found naturally only in chemically combined form. The free element, produced by reductive smelting, is a hard, lustrous, silver-gray metal....
catalyst from MIT. The United States Air Force
United States Air Force
The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on September 18, 1947 under the National Security Act of...
funds Dr. Daniel Nocera of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a private research university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts. MIT has five schools and one college, containing a total of 32 academic departments, with a strong emphasis on scientific and technological education and research.Founded in 1861 in...
in the field.
NADP+/NADPH coenzyme
The coenzyme, behaving in a cyclic manner, goes between picking up a protonProton
The proton is a subatomic particle with the symbol or and a positive electric charge of 1 elementary charge. One or more protons are present in the nucleus of each atom, along with neutrons. The number of protons in each atom is its atomic number....
and two electrons. It then delivers the hydride to an area where they await the production of carbohydrates. In a natural photosynthetic cycle, the coenzyme is recyclable, but this process cannot yet be replicated in a laboratory.
Right now the main aspiration for scientists is to obtain an NADPH-inspired catalyst capable of recreating the natural cyclic process. Utilizing light, hydride
Hydride
In chemistry, a hydride is the anion of hydrogen, H−, or, more commonly, a compound in which one or more hydrogen centres have nucleophilic, reducing, or basic properties. In compounds that are regarded as hydrides, hydrogen is bonded to a more electropositive element or group...
donors will be regenerated as well as produced, where the molecules are continuously used in a closed cycle. Brookhaven chemists are now using a ruthenium
Ruthenium
Ruthenium is a chemical element with symbol Ru and atomic number 44. It is a rare transition metal belonging to the platinum group of the periodic table. Like the other metals of the platinum group, ruthenium is inert to most chemicals. The Russian scientist Karl Ernst Claus discovered the element...
-based complex to serve as the acting model. The complex is proven to perform correspondingly with NADP+/NADPH, behaving as the foundation for the proton and two electrons needed to convert acetone
Acetone
Acetone is the organic compound with the formula 2CO, a colorless, mobile, flammable liquid, the simplest example of the ketones.Acetone is miscible with water and serves as an important solvent in its own right, typically as the solvent of choice for cleaning purposes in the laboratory...
to isopropanol.
Currently the Brookhaven researchers are aiming to find ways to have light generate the hydride donors. The general idea is to use this theory to produce fuels from carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a naturally occurring chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom...
.
Photocatalytic water splitting under solar light
One process for the creation of a clean and affordable energy supply is the development photocatalytic water splitting under solar light. This method of sustainable hydrogen production is a key target in the development of alternative energy systems of the future. The conversion of solar energy into hydrogen via a water-splitting process assisted by photosemiconductor catalysts is one of the most promising technologies for future development because large quantities of hydrogen can potentially be generated in an ecologically sound method. The conversion of solar energy into a clean fuel (H2) under ambient conditions is one of the greatest challenges facing scientists in the twenty-first century.This process is assisted by photocatalysts suspended directly in water instead of using a combination of a photovoltaic and electrolytic system, therefor the number of steps is cut in half over conventional technology, making it more efficient than Photoelectrochemical
Photoelectrochemical cell
Photoelectrochemical cells or PECs are solar cells which generate electrical energy from light, including visible light. Some photoelectrochemical cells simply produce electrical energy, while others produce hydrogen in a process similar to the electrolysis of water.-Photogeneration cell:In this...
water splitting
Water splitting
Water splitting is the general term for a chemical reaction in which water is separated into oxygen and hydrogen. Efficient and economical water splitting would be a key technology component of a hydrogen economy. Various techniques for water splitting have been issued in water splitting patents in...
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages of this approach include:- The solar energy can be immediately converted and stored, where as in photovoltaic cells, sunlight is converted into electricity and then converted again into chemical energy for storage, with some necessary loss of energy associated with the second conversion.
- The byproducts of these reactions are environmentally friendly.
- Artificially photosynthesized fuel would be a carbon-neutral source of energy, which can be used for transportation or homes.
- In reactions that consume carbon dioxideCarbon dioxideCarbon dioxide is a naturally occurring chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom...
, the CO2 emissions from fossil fuels will be mitigated.
Disadvantages include:
- Materials used for artificial photosynthesis often corrode in water, so they are less stable than photovoltaicsPhotovoltaicsPhotovoltaics is a method of generating electrical power by converting solar radiation into direct current electricity using semiconductors that exhibit the photovoltaic effect. Photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels composed of a number of solar cells containing a photovoltaic material...
over long periods of time. - The overall cost is not yet advantageous enough to compete with fossil fuels as a commercially viable source of energy.
Potential global impact
Artificial photosynthesis is a renewable, carbon-neutral source of fuel, producing either hydrogen, or carbohydrates. This sets it apart from the other popular renewable energyRenewable energy
Renewable energy is energy which comes from natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, and geothermal heat, which are renewable . About 16% of global final energy consumption comes from renewables, with 10% coming from traditional biomass, which is mainly used for heating, and 3.4% from...
sources — hydroelectric, solar photovoltaic, geothermal, and wind — which produce electricity directly, with no fuel intermediate.
As such, artificial photosynthesis may become a very important source of fuel for transportation. Unlike biomass
Biomass
Biomass, as a renewable energy source, is biological material from living, or recently living organisms. As an energy source, biomass can either be used directly, or converted into other energy products such as biofuel....
energy, it does not require arable land, and so it need not compete with the food supply.
Since the light-independent phase of photosynthesis fixes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, artificial photosynthesis may provide an economical mechanism for carbon sequestration, reducing the pool of CO2 in the atmosphere, and thus mitigating its effect on global warming
Global warming
Global warming refers to the rising average temperature of Earth's atmosphere and oceans and its projected continuation. In the last 100 years, Earth's average surface temperature increased by about with about two thirds of the increase occurring over just the last three decades...
. Specifically, net reduction of CO2 will occur when artificial photosynthesis is used to produce carbon-based fuel which is stored indefinitely.
At the 15th meeting of the International Congress of Photosynthesis Research (ISPR) in Beijing 27 August 2010 a proposal was made for a macroscience Global Artificial Photosynthesis (GAP) Project-seven models being presented for evaluation. An international conference on the subject took place between 14–18 August 2011 at Lord Howe Island under the auspices of the UNESCO
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations...
Natural Sciences Sector and subsequent meetings are planned. The meeting featured presentations from Peidong Yang
Peidong Yang
Peidong Yang is a Chinese American scientist, currently a Professor at the University of California, Berkeley . He is a Professor of Chemistry and a Professor of Materials Science. His research group studies the synthesis of nanomaterials and their electronic and optical properties...
from the Joint Center on Artificial Photosynthesis (JCAP), Dan Nocera from MIT, Gary Brudvig from Yale, David Tiede (Argonne Nat Lab); Craig Hill (Emory); Chris Moser (Penn); Gabriela Schlau-Cohen (Berkeley); David Wendell (Cincinnati); Richard Watt (Utah), Ann Magnuson (Uppsala), Johannes Messinger (Ume Sweden); David Coker (Dublin); Duncan Gregory (Edinburgh) Jörg Matysik (Leiden), Arvi Freiberg (Tartu); Eva-Mari Aro (Finland) Roberta Croce and Elisabet Romero (VU Amsterdam), Klaus Hellgardt (Imperial Coll. London), Naoki Aratani (Kyoto); Nobuo Kamiya (Osaka); Shunichi Fukuzumi (Osaka); Ryu Abe (Hokkaido) Hongxian Han (Dalian), Paul Mulvaney (Melb), Ron Pace, Elmars Krausz (ANU), David Officer and Gerard Sweigers (Wgong) and Michael Kirby (judge). It has been argued that photosynthesis in its natural or artificial forms should be considered the common heritage of humanity.
See also
- Carbon footprintCarbon footprintA carbon footprint has historically been defined as "the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an organization, event, product or person.". However, calculating a carbon footprint which conforms to this definition is often impracticable due to the large amount of data required, which is...
- Fuel cellFuel cellA fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into electricity through a chemical reaction with oxygen or another oxidizing agent. Hydrogen is the most common fuel, but hydrocarbons such as natural gas and alcohols like methanol are sometimes used...
- Hydrogen economyHydrogen economyThe hydrogen economy is a proposed system of delivering energy using hydrogen. The term hydrogen economy was coined by John Bockris during a talk he gave in 1970 at General Motors Technical Center....
- List of emerging technologies
- Photocatalytic water splittingPhotocatalytic water splittingPhotocatalytic water splitting is the term for the production of hydrogen and oxygen from water by directly utilizing the energy from light. Hydrogen fuel production has gained increasing attention as oil and other nonrenewable fuels become increasingly depleted and expensive...
- Photovoltaic cell
- Photovoltaic modulePhotovoltaic moduleA solar panel is a packaged, connected assembly of solar cells, also known as photovoltaic cells...
External links
- Engineering light-activated metalloproteins to split water at Australia National University
- Daniel Nocera describes new process for storing solar energy at Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
- Paul Alivisatos on Artificial Photosynthesis at Lawrence Berkley National Laboratory
- Nanocapsules for artificial photosynthesis a Nanowerk News article
- MIT Solar Revolution Project