Water resources of China
Encyclopedia
The water resources of China
are abundant on average, but are scarce in some regions. About 80% of all water resources are in one river basin, the Yangtze. Water is scarce around Beijing
, where groundwater
is overexploited. Agriculture is the major water user accounting for 78% of water use. The construction of a major canal from South to North is envisaged to alleviate water scarcity in the North. Seasonal variations of water availability, causing floods and droughts, are a major problem. Industrial pollution affects numerous rivers. Furthermore, natural contamination of groundwater with arsenic
and fluoride affects the drinking water supply of about 4% of the population. Water resources management is fragmented among various agencies and levels of government.
Waterbodies are polluted through continuous emissions as well as spills during accidents. Continuous emissions are from industrial and municipal point sources, as well as from nonpoint source
s such as pesticide
s and fertilizer
s.
According to China's State Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA) in 2006 60% of the country's rivers suffer from pollution to such an extent that they cannot be used as drinking water sources. According to the 2008 State of the Environment Report by the Ministry of Environmental Protection, the successor agency of SEPA, pollution of specific rivers is as follows:
Nevertheless, according to SEPA, the water quality in the central drinking water sources for major cities was "mainly good".
There have been a high number of river pollution incidents in recent years in China, including the high profile Songhua River
toxic chemical spill in November 2005 following an explosion at a Jilin
chemical plant in November, 2005, and drinking water source pollution by algae in the Tai Lake
, Wuxi
in May 2007. In the latter case there was a "bloom of blue-green algae that gave off a rotten smell" shutting off the main source of drinking water supply to 5.8 million people. By September 2007, the city had closed or given notice to close more than 1,340 polluting factories. The city ordered the rest to clean up by June or be permanently shut down. The closing of the factories resulted in a 15% reduction of local GDP. The severe pollution had been known for many years, but factories had been allowed to continue to operate until the crisis erupted.
According to a 2007 report by the World Bank, the pollution scandals demonstrate that, if not immediately and effectively controlled, pollution releases can spread across boundaries of administrative jurisdictions, causing "environmental and economic damage as well as public concern and the potential for social unease". Once an accident has occurred, the impact on the environment and human health becomes more difficult and more costly to control. Therefore, the report recommends prevention of pollution by strict enforcement of appropriate policies and regulations.
s suffer from arsenic contamination of groundwater
. Arsenic poisoning
occurs after long-term exposure to contaminated groundwater through drinking. The phenomenon was first detected in China in the 1950s. As water demand grows, wells are being drilled deeper and now frequently tap into arsenic-rich aquifers. As a consequence, arsenic poisoning is rising. To date there have been more than 30,000 cases reported with about 25 million people exposed to dangerously high levels in their drinking water.
According to the WHO
over 26 million people in China suffer from dental fluorosis
(weakening of teeth) due to elevated fluoride
in their drinking water. In addition, over 1 million cases of skeletal fluorosis
(weakening of bones) are thought to be attributable to drinking water. High levels of fluoride occur in groundwater and defluoridation is in many cases unaffordable.
In 2006 626,000 square kilometers were irrigated
.
and falling water tables are big problems in China, particularly in the north. According to the Ministry of Construction, preliminary statistics show that there are more than 160 areas nationwide where groundwater has been over-exploited with an average annual groundwater depletion of more than 10 billion cubic meters. As a result, more than 60,000 square kilometers of ground surface have sunk with more than 50 cities suffering from serious land subsidence. There is also increasing competition for surface water and the Yellow River
is so over-exploited that it does not reach the Sea in years with less rain. Flood
ing also still is a major problem.
from the Yangtse River to the Yellow River
and Beijing
.
The development or diversion of major transboundary rivers originating in China, such as the Brahmaputra River
and the Mekong River, could be a source on tension with China's neighbors. For example, after building two dams upstream, China is building at least three more on the Mekong, inflaming passions in Vietnam
, Laos
, Cambodia
and Thailand
. In a book titled "Tibet's Waters Will Save China" a group of Chinese ex-officials have championed the northward rerouting of the waters of the Brahmaputra as an important lifeline for China in a future phase of South-North Water Transfer Project
. Such a diversion could fuel tension with India
and Bangladesh
, if no prior agreement would be reached on sharing the river's water.
. Urban water supply and wastewater is dealt with by the Ministry of Construction, but groundwater falls within the realm of the Ministry of Land and Resources.
In 2007 Ma Xiancong, a researcher at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences
Institute of Law, identified the following areas where the government failed to act, or tacitly consented, approved or actively took part and so creating a worse situation: Land appropriation, pollution, excessive mining and the failure to carry out environmental impact assessments. An example of this emerged in 2006, when the State Environmental Protection Administration revealed over a dozen hydroelectric projects that had broken the Environmental Impact Assessment Law.
Other water resources
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
are abundant on average, but are scarce in some regions. About 80% of all water resources are in one river basin, the Yangtze. Water is scarce around Beijing
Beijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
, where groundwater
Groundwater
Groundwater is water located beneath the ground surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock...
is overexploited. Agriculture is the major water user accounting for 78% of water use. The construction of a major canal from South to North is envisaged to alleviate water scarcity in the North. Seasonal variations of water availability, causing floods and droughts, are a major problem. Industrial pollution affects numerous rivers. Furthermore, natural contamination of groundwater with arsenic
Arsenic
Arsenic is a chemical element with the symbol As, atomic number 33 and relative atomic mass 74.92. Arsenic occurs in many minerals, usually in conjunction with sulfur and metals, and also as a pure elemental crystal. It was first documented by Albertus Magnus in 1250.Arsenic is a metalloid...
and fluoride affects the drinking water supply of about 4% of the population. Water resources management is fragmented among various agencies and levels of government.
Water quality
The quality of groundwater or surface water is a major problem in China, be it because of man-made pollution or natural contamination.Pollution
Nonpoint source
Nonpoint source, or non-point source, or NPS, is a source that does not come from a single point.* Point source, contrasts with nonpoint source* Nonpoint source pollution, water pollution...
s such as pesticide
Pesticide
Pesticides are substances or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling or mitigating any pest.A pesticide may be a chemical unicycle, biological agent , antimicrobial, disinfectant or device used against any pest...
s and fertilizer
Fertilizer
Fertilizer is any organic or inorganic material of natural or synthetic origin that is added to a soil to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants. A recent assessment found that about 40 to 60% of crop yields are attributable to commercial fertilizer use...
s.
According to China's State Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA) in 2006 60% of the country's rivers suffer from pollution to such an extent that they cannot be used as drinking water sources. According to the 2008 State of the Environment Report by the Ministry of Environmental Protection, the successor agency of SEPA, pollution of specific rivers is as follows:
- The Pearl RiverPearl River (China)The Pearl River or less commonly, the "Guangdong River" or "Canton River" etc., , is an extensive river system in southern China. The name Pearl River is usually used as a catchment term to refer to the watersheds of the Xi Jiang , the Bei Jiang , and the Dong Jiang...
and Yangtze RiverYangtze RiverThe Yangtze, Yangzi or Cháng Jiāng is the longest river in Asia, and the third-longest in the world. It flows for from the glaciers on the Tibetan Plateau in Qinghai eastward across southwest, central and eastern China before emptying into the East China Sea at Shanghai. It is also one of the...
had "good water quality"; - The Songhua RiverSonghua RiverThe Songhua or Sunggari River is a river in Northeast China, and is the largest tributary of the Heilong River , flowing about from Changbai Mountains through Jilin and Heilongjiang provinces. The river drains of land, and has an annual discharge of .As the Second Songhua River, it joins the...
was "slightly polluted" (it was "moderately polluted" in 2006); - The Liaohe River, Huaihe River, Yellow RiverYellow RiverThe Yellow River or Huang He, formerly known as the Hwang Ho, is the second-longest river in China and the sixth-longest in the world at the estimated length of . Originating in the Bayan Har Mountains in Qinghai Province in western China, it flows through nine provinces of China and empties into...
were "moderately polluted" (other translation speak of "had poor water quality"); and - the Haihe River which flows through BeijingBeijingBeijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
and TianjinTianjin' is a metropolis in northern China and one of the five national central cities of the People's Republic of China. It is governed as a direct-controlled municipality, one of four such designations, and is, thus, under direct administration of the central government...
was "badly polluted".
Nevertheless, according to SEPA, the water quality in the central drinking water sources for major cities was "mainly good".
There have been a high number of river pollution incidents in recent years in China, including the high profile Songhua River
Songhua River
The Songhua or Sunggari River is a river in Northeast China, and is the largest tributary of the Heilong River , flowing about from Changbai Mountains through Jilin and Heilongjiang provinces. The river drains of land, and has an annual discharge of .As the Second Songhua River, it joins the...
toxic chemical spill in November 2005 following an explosion at a Jilin
Jilin
Jilin , is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the northeastern part of the country. Jilin borders North Korea and Russia to the east, Heilongjiang to the north, Liaoning to the south, and Inner Mongolia to the west...
chemical plant in November, 2005, and drinking water source pollution by algae in the Tai Lake
Tai Lake
Lake Tai, or Tai Lake or Lake Taihu, is a large lake in the Yangtze Delta plain, on the border of the Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces Eastern China. The waters of the lake belong to the former in its entirety with part of its southern shore forming the boundary between the two provinces...
, Wuxi
Wuxi
Wuxi is an old city in Jiangsu province, People's Republic of China. Split in half by Lake Tai, Wuxi borders Changzhou to the west and Suzhou to the east. The northern half looks across to Taizhou across the Yangtze River, while the southern half also borders the province of Zhejiang to the south...
in May 2007. In the latter case there was a "bloom of blue-green algae that gave off a rotten smell" shutting off the main source of drinking water supply to 5.8 million people. By September 2007, the city had closed or given notice to close more than 1,340 polluting factories. The city ordered the rest to clean up by June or be permanently shut down. The closing of the factories resulted in a 15% reduction of local GDP. The severe pollution had been known for many years, but factories had been allowed to continue to operate until the crisis erupted.
According to a 2007 report by the World Bank, the pollution scandals demonstrate that, if not immediately and effectively controlled, pollution releases can spread across boundaries of administrative jurisdictions, causing "environmental and economic damage as well as public concern and the potential for social unease". Once an accident has occurred, the impact on the environment and human health becomes more difficult and more costly to control. Therefore, the report recommends prevention of pollution by strict enforcement of appropriate policies and regulations.
Natural contamination
Large portions of China's aquiferAquifer
An aquifer is a wet underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock or unconsolidated materials from which groundwater can be usefully extracted using a water well. The study of water flow in aquifers and the characterization of aquifers is called hydrogeology...
s suffer from arsenic contamination of groundwater
Arsenic contamination of groundwater
Arsenic contamination of groundwater is a natural occurring high concentration of arsenic in deeper levels of groundwater, which became a high-profile problem in recent years due to the use of deep tubewells for water supply in the Ganges Delta, causing serious arsenic poisoning to large numbers of...
. Arsenic poisoning
Arsenic poisoning
Arsenic poisoning is a medical condition caused by increased levels of the element arsenic in the body. Arsenic interferes with cellular longevity by allosteric inhibition of an essential metabolic enzyme...
occurs after long-term exposure to contaminated groundwater through drinking. The phenomenon was first detected in China in the 1950s. As water demand grows, wells are being drilled deeper and now frequently tap into arsenic-rich aquifers. As a consequence, arsenic poisoning is rising. To date there have been more than 30,000 cases reported with about 25 million people exposed to dangerously high levels in their drinking water.
According to the WHO
Who
Who may refer to:* Who , an English-language pronoun* who , a Unix command* Who?, one of the Five Ws in journalism- Art and entertainment :* Who? , a 1958 novel by Algis Budrys...
over 26 million people in China suffer from dental fluorosis
Dental fluorosis
Dental fluorosis is a developmental disturbance of dental enamel caused by excessive exposure to high concentrations of fluoride during tooth development. The risk of fluoride overexposure occurs between the ages of 3 months and 8 years. In its mild forms , fluorosis often appears as unnoticeable,...
(weakening of teeth) due to elevated fluoride
Fluoride
Fluoride is the anion F−, the reduced form of fluorine when as an ion and when bonded to another element. Both organofluorine compounds and inorganic fluorine containing compounds are called fluorides. Fluoride, like other halides, is a monovalent ion . Its compounds often have properties that are...
in their drinking water. In addition, over 1 million cases of skeletal fluorosis
Skeletal fluorosis
Skeletal fluorosis is a bone disease caused by excessive consumption of fluoride. In advanced cases, skeletal fluorosis causes pain and damage to bones and joints.-Forms:...
(weakening of bones) are thought to be attributable to drinking water. High levels of fluoride occur in groundwater and defluoridation is in many cases unaffordable.
Supply
China's water resources include 2,711.5 cubic kilometers of mean annual run-off in its rivers and 828.8 cubic kilometers of groundwater recharge. As pumping water draws water from nearby rivers, the total available resource is less than the sum of surface and groundwater, and thus is only 2,821.4 cubic kilometers. 80% of these resources are in the South of China.Demand
Total water withdrawals were estimated at 554 cubic kilometers in 2005, or about 20% of renewable resources. Demand is from the following sectors:- 65% agriculture
- 23% industry
- 12% domestic
In 2006 626,000 square kilometers were irrigated
Irrigation
Irrigation may be defined as the science of artificial application of water to the land or soil. It is used to assist in the growing of agricultural crops, maintenance of landscapes, and revegetation of disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall...
.
Water balance
Over-extraction of groundwaterGroundwater
Groundwater is water located beneath the ground surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock...
and falling water tables are big problems in China, particularly in the north. According to the Ministry of Construction, preliminary statistics show that there are more than 160 areas nationwide where groundwater has been over-exploited with an average annual groundwater depletion of more than 10 billion cubic meters. As a result, more than 60,000 square kilometers of ground surface have sunk with more than 50 cities suffering from serious land subsidence. There is also increasing competition for surface water and the Yellow River
Yellow River
The Yellow River or Huang He, formerly known as the Hwang Ho, is the second-longest river in China and the sixth-longest in the world at the estimated length of . Originating in the Bayan Har Mountains in Qinghai Province in western China, it flows through nine provinces of China and empties into...
is so over-exploited that it does not reach the Sea in years with less rain. Flood
Flood
A flood is an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges land. The EU Floods directive defines a flood as a temporary covering by water of land not normally covered by water...
ing also still is a major problem.
Water transfers
Large-scale water transfers have long been advocated by Chinese planners as a solution to the country's water woes. The South-North Water Transfer ProjectSouth-North Water Transfer Project
The South-North Water Transfer Project is a multi-decade infrastructure project of the People's Republic of China to better utilize water resources available to China. This is to be achieved through the South North Water Diversion Project...
from the Yangtse River to the Yellow River
Yellow River
The Yellow River or Huang He, formerly known as the Hwang Ho, is the second-longest river in China and the sixth-longest in the world at the estimated length of . Originating in the Bayan Har Mountains in Qinghai Province in western China, it flows through nine provinces of China and empties into...
and Beijing
Beijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
.
The development or diversion of major transboundary rivers originating in China, such as the Brahmaputra River
Brahmaputra River
The Brahmaputra , also called Tsangpo-Brahmaputra, is a trans-boundary river and one of the major rivers of Asia. It is the only Indian river that is attributed the masculine gender and thus referred to as a in Indo-Aryan languages and languages with Indo-Aryan influence...
and the Mekong River, could be a source on tension with China's neighbors. For example, after building two dams upstream, China is building at least three more on the Mekong, inflaming passions in Vietnam
Vietnam
Vietnam – sometimes spelled Viet Nam , officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam – is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by China to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea –...
, Laos
Laos
Laos Lao: ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ Sathalanalat Paxathipatai Paxaxon Lao, officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic, is a landlocked country in Southeast Asia, bordered by Burma and China to the northwest, Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the south and Thailand to the west...
, Cambodia
Cambodia
Cambodia , officially known as the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country located in the southern portion of the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia...
and Thailand
Thailand
Thailand , officially the Kingdom of Thailand , formerly known as Siam , is a country located at the centre of the Indochina peninsula and Southeast Asia. It is bordered to the north by Burma and Laos, to the east by Laos and Cambodia, to the south by the Gulf of Thailand and Malaysia, and to the...
. In a book titled "Tibet's Waters Will Save China" a group of Chinese ex-officials have championed the northward rerouting of the waters of the Brahmaputra as an important lifeline for China in a future phase of South-North Water Transfer Project
South-North Water Transfer Project
The South-North Water Transfer Project is a multi-decade infrastructure project of the People's Republic of China to better utilize water resources available to China. This is to be achieved through the South North Water Diversion Project...
. Such a diversion could fuel tension with India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
and Bangladesh
Bangladesh
Bangladesh , officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh is a sovereign state located in South Asia. It is bordered by India on all sides except for a small border with Burma to the far southeast and by the Bay of Bengal to the south...
, if no prior agreement would be reached on sharing the river's water.
Management
Several authorities have responsibility for dealing with water. Water pollution is the responsibility of the environmental authorities, but surface water itself is managed by the Ministry of Water ResourcesMinistry of Water Resources
Ministry of Water Resources may refer to:* Ministry of Water Resources of the People's Republic of China, government department of China;* Ministry of Water Resources , a government department of Ethiopia;...
. Urban water supply and wastewater is dealt with by the Ministry of Construction, but groundwater falls within the realm of the Ministry of Land and Resources.
In 2007 Ma Xiancong, a researcher at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences
Chinese Academy of Social Sciences
The Chinese Academy of Social Sciences , established in 1977, is the premier and highest academic research organization in the fields of philosophy and social sciences as well as a national center for comprehensive studies in the People's Republic of China. It was described by Foreign Policy...
Institute of Law, identified the following areas where the government failed to act, or tacitly consented, approved or actively took part and so creating a worse situation: Land appropriation, pollution, excessive mining and the failure to carry out environmental impact assessments. An example of this emerged in 2006, when the State Environmental Protection Administration revealed over a dozen hydroelectric projects that had broken the Environmental Impact Assessment Law.
See also
China- China water crisisChina water crisisThe Chinese water crisis threatens the stability and prosperity not only in People's Republic of China but globally as well, according to John McAlister from the film Aquabiotronics. According to the World Bank forecast, Mainland China has only a per-capita share of 2700 cubic meters per annum,...
- Water supply and sanitation in the People's Republic of ChinaWater supply and sanitation in the People's Republic of ChinaWater supply and sanitation in China is undergoing a massive transition while facing numerous challenges such as rapid urbanization, a widening gap between rich and poor as well as urban and rural areas...
- Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People's Republic of ChinaMinistry of Environmental Protection of the People's Republic of ChinaThe Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People's Republic of China , formerly State Environmental Protection Administration , is a cabinet-level ministry in the executive branch of the Chinese Government . It replaced the SEPA during the March 2008 National People's Congress sessions in...
- Geography of ChinaGeography of ChinaChina stretches some across the East Asian landmass bordering the East China Sea, Korea Bay, Yellow Sea, and South China Sea, between North Korea and Vietnam in a changing configuration of broad plains, expansive deserts, and lofty mountain ranges, including vast areas of inhospitable terrain...
- Agriculture in ChinaAgriculture in ChinaAgriculture is an important economic sector of China, employing over 300 million farmers. China ranks first in worldwide farm output, primarily producing rice, wheat, potatoes, sorghum, peanuts, tea, millet, barley, cotton, oilseed, pork, and fish.-History:...
- Environment of ChinaEnvironment of ChinaThe environment in the People's Republic of China has traditionally been neglected as the country concentrates on its rise as an economic power. Chasing the political gains of economic development, local officials in China often overlook environmental pollution, worker safety and public health...
Other water resources
- Water supply in Hong KongWater supply in Hong KongProviding an adequate water supply for Hong Kong has always been difficult because there are few natural lakes, rivers or substantial groundwater sources and of its high population density. About 70% of water demand thus is met by importing water from the Dongjiang River in neighboring Guangdong...
- Water resources of SingaporeWater resources of SingaporeWater supply and sanitation in Singapore is characterized by a number of achievements in the challenging environment of a densely populated island. Access to water is universal, affordable, efficient and of high quality...
External links
- Peter GleickPeter GleickDr. Peter H. Gleick is a scientist working on issues related to the environment, economic development, and international security, with a focus on global freshwater challenges. He works at the Pacific Institute in Oakland, California, which he co-founded in 1987. In 2003 he was awarded a MacArthur...
:China and Water, Chapter 5 of The World's Water 2008-2009, Pacific Institute, 2009. - Jian Xie, with Andres Liebenthal, Jeremy J. Warford, John A. Dixon, Manchuan Wang, Shiji Gao, Shuilin Wang, Yong Jiang, and Zhong Ma:Addressing China’s Water Scarcity. Recommendations for Selected Water Resource Management Issues, The World BankWorld BankThe World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans to developing countries for capital programmes.The World Bank's official goal is the reduction of poverty...
, 2009 - Environment & Energy News at China Development Gateway
- World Bank:"Agenda for Water Sector Strategy for North China", April 2001
- "Chinese cities face toxic spills: Explosions at chemical plants leave millions without clean water" Subscription required Nature, November 25, 2005
- Chinadialogue:Lee Seungho:"Wet politics in China" 中国与世界，环境危机大家谈 September 25, 2006
- Chinadialogue:Ma Xiangcong:"China's environmental governance", February 21, 2007
- China water pollution - Greenpeace China
- Ministry of Environmental Protection