Victorian masculinity
Encyclopedia
During the reign of Queen Victoria, there were certain social expectations that the separate genders were expected to adhere to. For the males, this included a vast amount of pride in their work, a protectiveness over their wives, if they were married, and an aptitude for good social behaviour.
The study of Victorian masculinity is based on the assumption that "the construction of male consciousness must be seen as historically specific."
The concept of Victorian masculinity is a diverse one since it was influenced by numerous aspects and factors such as domesticity
, economy
, gender roles, imperialism
, manners
, religion
, sporting competition
, and much more. Some of these aspects seem to be quite naturally related to one another, while others seem profoundly none-relational. The concept of Victorian masculinity is a topic of interest in the context of Cultural Studies
with a special emphasis on Gender studies
. Historically, it is tied to the Victorian era
in the United Kingdom
. The topic is of much current interest in the areas of history
, literary criticism
, religious studies
, and sociology
. Those virtues that survived until today are of special interest to the researchers: the 'dominance of the Western male'.
The concept itself shifted about the mid of the 19th century from a focus on a desired achievement of Christian
maturity to a focus on hardiness.
s and the Oddfellows. The Victorians saw manliness as good, a form of control over maleness, which was brutish.
with extensive power. He was the head of the household, but his duty was not only to rule, but also to protect those whom he viewed as weak—his wife and their children.
were seen as idle because they generally did not work. By being active in enterprise, men fulfilled their duty as breadwinners in the sense that they had to provide for their families. Since home and work were perceived as very separate spheres, working at home was a delicate matter, for example for writers, who had to fear their masculine status being threatened. Besides work, Victorian men were also active in the public sphere of clubs and taverns, indulging in homosociality
.
's The Origin of Species
(1859) and Friedrich Nietzsche
saying "God is dead!" (1882) the main focus in the concept of masculinity shifted from a spiritual focus on religion towards a commitment to muscle: 'muscular Christianity' was created. At the same time male domesticity decreased.
and especially biology
. Thus, a fascination with health
led to a sports and game playing mania
, which was primarily acted out through the public school
system for boys. The athlete was the new hero of society. This, according to E.M. Forster, then led to "well-developed bodies, fairly developed minds, and undeveloped hearts". Another reason for such drills was that by the end of the 19th century the British Empire
was perceived to be in danger and athletic public school boys made good recruit
s.
because the subordination of non-western cultures was in its heyday in Britain. Thus, part of the concept of masculinity became military and patriotic virtue
, which defined the ideal man as courageous and enduring like hunters, adventurers, and pioneer
s, all of whom were profoundly self-sufficient and independent and had broad scientific knowledge. This orientation towards hardiness and endurance was reflected by a change in clothing as well: rich colors and materials were discouraged in favor of dark colors, straight cuts, and stiff materials.
The study of Victorian masculinity is based on the assumption that "the construction of male consciousness must be seen as historically specific."
The concept of Victorian masculinity is a diverse one since it was influenced by numerous aspects and factors such as domesticity
Cult of Domesticity
The Cult of Domesticity or Cult of True Womanhood was a prevailing value system among the upper and middle classes during the nineteenth century in the United States and Great Britain. Although all women were supposed to emulate this ideal of womanhood, it was assumed that only white women could...
, economy
Economy
An economy consists of the economic system of a country or other area; the labor, capital and land resources; and the manufacturing, trade, distribution, and consumption of goods and services of that area...
, gender roles, imperialism
Imperialism
Imperialism, as defined by Dictionary of Human Geography, is "the creation and/or maintenance of an unequal economic, cultural, and territorial relationships, usually between states and often in the form of an empire, based on domination and subordination." The imperialism of the last 500 years,...
, manners
Manners
In sociology, manners are the unenforced standards of conduct which demonstrate that a person is proper, polite, and refined. They are like laws in that they codify or set a standard for human behavior, but they are unlike laws in that there is no formal system for punishing transgressions, the...
, religion
Religion
Religion is a collection of cultural systems, belief systems, and worldviews that establishes symbols that relate humanity to spirituality and, sometimes, to moral values. Many religions have narratives, symbols, traditions and sacred histories that are intended to give meaning to life or to...
, sporting competition
Sport
A Sport is all forms of physical activity which, through casual or organised participation, aim to use, maintain or improve physical fitness and provide entertainment to participants. Sport may be competitive, where a winner or winners can be identified by objective means, and may require a degree...
, and much more. Some of these aspects seem to be quite naturally related to one another, while others seem profoundly none-relational. The concept of Victorian masculinity is a topic of interest in the context of Cultural Studies
Cultural studies
Cultural studies is an academic field grounded in critical theory and literary criticism. It generally concerns the political nature of contemporary culture, as well as its historical foundations, conflicts, and defining traits. It is, to this extent, largely distinguished from cultural...
with a special emphasis on Gender studies
Gender studies
Gender studies is a field of interdisciplinary study which analyses race, ethnicity, sexuality and location.Gender study has many different forms. One view exposed by the philosopher Simone de Beauvoir said: "One is not born a woman, one becomes one"...
. Historically, it is tied to the Victorian era
Victorian era
The Victorian era of British history was the period of Queen Victoria's reign from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. It was a long period of peace, prosperity, refined sensibilities and national self-confidence...
in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
. The topic is of much current interest in the areas of history
History
History is the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events. History can also mean the period of time after writing was invented. Scholars who write about history are called historians...
, literary criticism
Literary criticism
Literary criticism is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often informed by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of its methods and goals...
, religious studies
Religious studies
Religious studies is the academic field of multi-disciplinary, secular study of religious beliefs, behaviors, and institutions. It describes, compares, interprets, and explains religion, emphasizing systematic, historically based, and cross-cultural perspectives.While theology attempts to...
, and sociology
Sociology
Sociology is the study of society. It is a social science—a term with which it is sometimes synonymous—which uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about human social activity...
. Those virtues that survived until today are of special interest to the researchers: the 'dominance of the Western male'.
The concept itself shifted about the mid of the 19th century from a focus on a desired achievement of Christian
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
maturity to a focus on hardiness.
Origins
The study of Victorian masculinity is based on the assumption that "the construction of male consciousness must be seen as historically specific." As a result, men increasingly formed secret societies, such as the MasonFreemasonry
Freemasonry is a fraternal organisation that arose from obscure origins in the late 16th to early 17th century. Freemasonry now exists in various forms all over the world, with a membership estimated at around six million, including approximately 150,000 under the jurisdictions of the Grand Lodge...
s and the Oddfellows. The Victorians saw manliness as good, a form of control over maleness, which was brutish.
Christianity and patriarchy
Christianity contributed much to the Victorian concept of masculinity. The real Victorian man was to be spiritual and a faithful believer. Hence, the husband and father was considered to be the pater familiasPater familias
The pater familias, also written as paterfamilias was the head of a Roman family. The term is Latin for "father of the family" or the "owner of the family estate". The form is irregular and archaic in Latin, preserving the old genitive ending in -as...
with extensive power. He was the head of the household, but his duty was not only to rule, but also to protect those whom he viewed as weak—his wife and their children.
Industrialism
Like in the private sphere, men of the Victorian era were equally active in the public sphere (in contrast to women). Work was crucial in order to achieve a fully masculine status. This was especially true for the middle-class man; male members of the aristocracyAristocracy
Aristocracy , is a form of government in which a few elite citizens rule. The term derives from the Greek aristokratia, meaning "rule of the best". In origin in Ancient Greece, it was conceived of as rule by the best qualified citizens, and contrasted with monarchy...
were seen as idle because they generally did not work. By being active in enterprise, men fulfilled their duty as breadwinners in the sense that they had to provide for their families. Since home and work were perceived as very separate spheres, working at home was a delicate matter, for example for writers, who had to fear their masculine status being threatened. Besides work, Victorian men were also active in the public sphere of clubs and taverns, indulging in homosociality
Homosociality
In sociology, homosociality describes same-sex relationships that are not of a romantic or sexual nature, such as friendship, mentorship, or others. The opposite of homosocial is heterosocial, preferring non-sexual relations with the opposite sex...
.
Muscular Christianity
With the beginning of the second half of the 19th century the picture of the ideal of manliness started to shift. Due to publications such as Charles DarwinCharles Darwin
Charles Robert Darwin FRS was an English naturalist. He established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestry, and proposed the scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection.He published his theory...
's The Origin of Species
The Origin of Species
Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species, published on 24 November 1859, is a work of scientific literature which is considered to be the foundation of evolutionary biology. Its full title was On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the...
(1859) and Friedrich Nietzsche
Friedrich Nietzsche
Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche was a 19th-century German philosopher, poet, composer and classical philologist...
saying "God is dead!" (1882) the main focus in the concept of masculinity shifted from a spiritual focus on religion towards a commitment to muscle: 'muscular Christianity' was created. At the same time male domesticity decreased.
Sports and readiness for physical combat
The development towards a focus on muscle manifested itself in the belief that in order to educate one's mind one had to educate one's body. This assumption has its roots in the rise of natural scienceNatural science
The natural sciences are branches of science that seek to elucidate the rules that govern the natural world by using empirical and scientific methods...
and especially biology
Biology
Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. Biology is a vast subject containing many subdivisions, topics, and disciplines...
. Thus, a fascination with health
Health
Health is the level of functional or metabolic efficiency of a living being. In humans, it is the general condition of a person's mind, body and spirit, usually meaning to be free from illness, injury or pain...
led to a sports and game playing mania
Mania
Mania, the presence of which is a criterion for certain psychiatric diagnoses, is a state of abnormally elevated or irritable mood, arousal, and/ or energy levels. In a sense, it is the opposite of depression...
, which was primarily acted out through the public school
Public School (UK)
A public school, in common British usage, is a school that is neither administered nor financed by the state or from taxpayer contributions, and is instead funded by a combination of endowments, tuition fees and charitable contributions, usually existing as a non profit-making charitable trust...
system for boys. The athlete was the new hero of society. This, according to E.M. Forster, then led to "well-developed bodies, fairly developed minds, and undeveloped hearts". Another reason for such drills was that by the end of the 19th century the British Empire
British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the...
was perceived to be in danger and athletic public school boys made good recruit
Recruit
Recruit can refer to:* a recently enlisted member of a military or paramilitary corps, still in training, as in :** Army recruit** Seaman Recruit...
s.
Imperialism
In the second half of the 19th century the ideal of Victorian manliness became increasingly defined by imperialismImperialism
Imperialism, as defined by Dictionary of Human Geography, is "the creation and/or maintenance of an unequal economic, cultural, and territorial relationships, usually between states and often in the form of an empire, based on domination and subordination." The imperialism of the last 500 years,...
because the subordination of non-western cultures was in its heyday in Britain. Thus, part of the concept of masculinity became military and patriotic virtue
Virtue
Virtue is moral excellence. A virtue is a positive trait or quality subjectively deemed to be morally excellent and thus is valued as a foundation of principle and good moral being....
, which defined the ideal man as courageous and enduring like hunters, adventurers, and pioneer
Settler
A settler is a person who has migrated to an area and established permanent residence there, often to colonize the area. Settlers are generally people who take up residence on land and cultivate it, as opposed to nomads...
s, all of whom were profoundly self-sufficient and independent and had broad scientific knowledge. This orientation towards hardiness and endurance was reflected by a change in clothing as well: rich colors and materials were discouraged in favor of dark colors, straight cuts, and stiff materials.