United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara
Encyclopedia
MINURSO is the United Nations
peacekeeping
mission in Western Sahara
. The name is a French
acronym for "Mission des Nations Unies pour l'Organisation d'un Référendum au Sahara Occidental" — United Nations Mission for the organization of a Referendum in Western Sahara.
, as part of the Settlement Plan
, which had paved way for a cease-fire in the conflict between Morocco
and the Polisario Front
(as the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
), over the contested territory of Western Sahara (formerly Spanish Sahara
).
MINURSO's mission was to monitor the cease-fire and to organize and conduct a referendum
, in accordance with the Settlement Plan, which would enable the Sahrawis of Western Sahara
to choose between integration with Morocco
and independence
. This was intended to constitute the Sahrawi people's exercise of self-determination
, and thus complete Western Sahara's still-unfinished process of decolonization
(Western Sahara is the last major territory remaining on the UN's list of non-decolonized territories
.)
To this end, MINURSO has been given the following mandates:
was supposed to restart the process, but again failed. In 2003, the Baker Plan
was launched to replace the Settlement Plan, but while accepted by the Polisario and unanimously endorsed by the United Nations Security Council
, it was rejected by Morocco. Presently, there is no plan for holding the referendum, and the viability of the cease-fire is coming into question.
In October 2006 the Security Council passed a resolution extending the mandate of MINURSO to April 2007. A provision decrying human rights abuses by Morocco in Western Sahara
had the backing of 14 members of the Security Council, but was deleted due to French objections.
The April 2007 the resolution extending the mandate to October took "note of the Moroccan proposal presented on 11 April 2007 to the Secretary-General and welcoming serious and credible Moroccan efforts to move the process forward towards resolution" and also took "note of the Polisario Front proposal presented on 10 April 2007 to the Secretary-General". The representative of South Africa
took exception to the way that one proposal was held more worthy than the other as well as the lack of participation outside the Group of Friends in the drafting of the resolution.
The October 2007 resolution extending the mandate to April 2008 contained the same preferential wording in its in its description of the two proposals. The representative of South Africa commented on this again, and regretted the fact that the resolution "considered" rather than "welcomed" the report on the situation by the Secretary-General — "presumably because [it] dared to raise the issue of the human rights violations against the Saharawi people", and quoted the warning in the report about there being no mandate to address the issue of human rights.
The April 2008 resolution extended the mandate for a full year to April 2009. Before the vote, the representative of Costa Rica expressed his "concern at the manner in which the draft resolution on which we are about to vote was negotiated" and a "difficulty in understanding the absolute refusal to include" references to human rights.
MINURSO's budget is roughly 60 million dollars per year.
west of the berm and those in the Sahrawi-controlled region
and refugee camps
to the east and in Algeria
. The camps west of the berm
are located in Mahbes, Smara
, Umm Dreiga
and Auserd
. The eastern camps include Bir Lehlou
, Tifariti
, Mehaires, Mijek
, and Agwanit. There is also a liaison office in Tindouf
which serves as a communication channel with POLISARIO leadership.
and Egypt
. Armed contingents patrol the no man's land
that borders the Moroccan Wall
, to safeguard the cease-fire.
There have been a total of 15 fatalities in MINURSO: five military personnel, a police officer, a military observer, three international civilian personnel, and five local civilian personnel.
(as MINURSO is the only UN mission in the world who has no mandate on them) monitoring for Western Sahara and the Sahrawi population, despite serious reports of numerous abuses.
. This possibility has been denied by France with its veto power on the Security Council.
From 1995 but mostly in 2006-2007 period, MINURSO personnel vandalized archeological deposits in the Free Zone
(POLISARIO-controlled parts of Western Sahara). There are also accusations of looting of prehistorical paintings by individuals from the UN on some of those sites.
In May 2010, the Polisario Front suspended contacts with the MINURSO, because of the failure on implementing the self-determination referendum, and accused the force of "...turning into a protector shield of a colonial fact, the occupation of the Western Sahara by Morocco".
In September 2010, former MINURSO Force Commander, General Esegbuyota Okita stated about the Independence Intifada events:
. He also expressed his regret on the inability of MINURSO members to intervene, because their mandate does not monitor the protection of human rights, stressing the need to include them within the MINURSO mandates.
United Nations
The United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace...
peacekeeping
Peacekeeping
Peacekeeping is an activity that aims to create the conditions for lasting peace. It is distinguished from both peacebuilding and peacemaking....
mission in Western Sahara
Western Sahara
Western Sahara is a disputed territory in North Africa, bordered by Morocco to the north, Algeria to the northeast, Mauritania to the east and south, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. Its surface area amounts to . It is one of the most sparsely populated territories in the world, mainly...
. The name is a French
French language
French is a Romance language spoken as a first language in France, the Romandy region in Switzerland, Wallonia and Brussels in Belgium, Monaco, the regions of Quebec and Acadia in Canada, and by various communities elsewhere. Second-language speakers of French are distributed throughout many parts...
acronym for "Mission des Nations Unies pour l'Organisation d'un Référendum au Sahara Occidental" — United Nations Mission for the organization of a Referendum in Western Sahara.
Purpose of the mission
MINURSO was established in 1991 under Security Council Resolution 690United Nations Security Council Resolution 690
United Nations Security Council Resolution 690, adopted unanimously on April 29, 1991, after recalling resolutions 621 and 658 and noting a report by the Secretary-General on the situation in Western Sahara, the Council approved the report and decided to establish the United Nations Mission for...
, as part of the Settlement Plan
Settlement Plan
The Settlement Plan was an agreement between the Polisario Front and Morocco on the organization of a referendum, which would constitute an expression of self-determination for the people of Western Sahara, leading either to full independence, or integration with the kingdom of Morocco...
, which had paved way for a cease-fire in the conflict between Morocco
Morocco
Morocco , officially the Kingdom of Morocco , is a country located in North Africa. It has a population of more than 32 million and an area of 710,850 km², and also primarily administers the disputed region of the Western Sahara...
and the Polisario Front
Polisario Front
The POLISARIO, Polisario Front, or Frente Polisario, from the Spanish abbreviation of Frente Popular de Liberación de Saguía el Hamra y Río de Oro is a Sahrawi rebel national liberation movement working for the independence of Western Sahara from Morocco...
(as the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic is a partially recognised state that claims sovereignty over the entire territory of Western Sahara, a former Spanish colony. SADR was proclaimed by the Polisario Front on February 27, 1976, in Bir Lehlu, Western Sahara. The SADR government controls about...
), over the contested territory of Western Sahara (formerly Spanish Sahara
Spanish Sahara
Spanish Sahara was the name used for the modern territory of Western Sahara when it was ruled as a territory by Spain between 1884 and 1975...
).
MINURSO's mission was to monitor the cease-fire and to organize and conduct a referendum
Referendum
A referendum is a direct vote in which an entire electorate is asked to either accept or reject a particular proposal. This may result in the adoption of a new constitution, a constitutional amendment, a law, the recall of an elected official or simply a specific government policy. It is a form of...
, in accordance with the Settlement Plan, which would enable the Sahrawis of Western Sahara
Western Sahara
Western Sahara is a disputed territory in North Africa, bordered by Morocco to the north, Algeria to the northeast, Mauritania to the east and south, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. Its surface area amounts to . It is one of the most sparsely populated territories in the world, mainly...
to choose between integration with Morocco
Morocco
Morocco , officially the Kingdom of Morocco , is a country located in North Africa. It has a population of more than 32 million and an area of 710,850 km², and also primarily administers the disputed region of the Western Sahara...
and independence
Independence
Independence is a condition of a nation, country, or state in which its residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over its territory....
. This was intended to constitute the Sahrawi people's exercise of self-determination
Self-determination
Self-determination is the principle in international law that nations have the right to freely choose their sovereignty and international political status with no external compulsion or external interference...
, and thus complete Western Sahara's still-unfinished process of decolonization
Decolonization
Decolonization refers to the undoing of colonialism, the unequal relation of polities whereby one people or nation establishes and maintains dependent Territory over another...
(Western Sahara is the last major territory remaining on the UN's list of non-decolonized territories
United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories
The United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories is a list of countries that, according to the United Nations, are non-decolonized. The list was initially prepared in 1946 pursuant to Chapter XI of the United Nations Charter, and has been updated by the General Assembly on recommendation...
.)
To this end, MINURSO has been given the following mandates:
- Monitor the ceasefire
- Verify the reduction of Moroccan troops in the territory
- Monitor the confinement of Moroccan and Polisario troops to designated locations
- Take steps with the parties to ensure the release of all Western Saharan political prisoners or detainees
- Oversee the exchange of prisoners of war (through the International Committee of the Red CrossInternational Committee of the Red CrossThe International Committee of the Red Cross is a private humanitarian institution based in Geneva, Switzerland. States parties to the four Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their Additional Protocols of 1977 and 2005, have given the ICRC a mandate to protect the victims of international and...
) - Implement the repatriation programme (through the United Nations High Commissioner for RefugeesUnited Nations High Commissioner for RefugeesThe Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees , also known as The UN Refugee Agency is a United Nations agency mandated to protect and support refugees at the request of a government or the UN itself and assists in their voluntary repatriation, local integration or resettlement to...
) - Identify and register qualified voters
- Organize and ensure a free and fair referendum and proclaim the results
Plans
The independence referendum was originally scheduled for 1992, but conflicts over voter eligibility prevented it from being held. Both sides blamed each other for stalling the process. In 1997, the Houston AgreementHouston Agreement
The Houston Agreement was the result of negotiations between the Polisario Front and Morocco on the organization of a referendum, which would constitute an expression of self-determination for the people of Western Sahara, possibly leading to full independence or integration within Morocco...
was supposed to restart the process, but again failed. In 2003, the Baker Plan
Baker Plan
The Baker Plan is a United Nations initiative to grant self-determination to Western Sahara...
was launched to replace the Settlement Plan, but while accepted by the Polisario and unanimously endorsed by the United Nations Security Council
United Nations Security Council
The United Nations Security Council is one of the principal organs of the United Nations and is charged with the maintenance of international peace and security. Its powers, outlined in the United Nations Charter, include the establishment of peacekeeping operations, the establishment of...
, it was rejected by Morocco. Presently, there is no plan for holding the referendum, and the viability of the cease-fire is coming into question.
Extensions
The MINURSO mandate has been extended 39 times since 1991.In October 2006 the Security Council passed a resolution extending the mandate of MINURSO to April 2007. A provision decrying human rights abuses by Morocco in Western Sahara
Human rights in Western Sahara
Morocco sees Western Sahara as its Southern Provinces. Morocco considers the Polisario Front as a separatist movement given the Moroccan origins of many of its leaders, and a puppet in the hands of Algeria....
had the backing of 14 members of the Security Council, but was deleted due to French objections.
The April 2007 the resolution extending the mandate to October took "note of the Moroccan proposal presented on 11 April 2007 to the Secretary-General and welcoming serious and credible Moroccan efforts to move the process forward towards resolution" and also took "note of the Polisario Front proposal presented on 10 April 2007 to the Secretary-General". The representative of South Africa
South Africa
The Republic of South Africa is a country in southern Africa. Located at the southern tip of Africa, it is divided into nine provinces, with of coastline on the Atlantic and Indian oceans...
took exception to the way that one proposal was held more worthy than the other as well as the lack of participation outside the Group of Friends in the drafting of the resolution.
The October 2007 resolution extending the mandate to April 2008 contained the same preferential wording in its in its description of the two proposals. The representative of South Africa commented on this again, and regretted the fact that the resolution "considered" rather than "welcomed" the report on the situation by the Secretary-General — "presumably because [it] dared to raise the issue of the human rights violations against the Saharawi people", and quoted the warning in the report about there being no mandate to address the issue of human rights.
The April 2008 resolution extended the mandate for a full year to April 2009. Before the vote, the representative of Costa Rica expressed his "concern at the manner in which the draft resolution on which we are about to vote was negotiated" and a "difficulty in understanding the absolute refusal to include" references to human rights.
MINURSO's budget is roughly 60 million dollars per year.
Bases
There are two sets of teams, those in the Moroccan-controlled portionSouthern Provinces
The Southern Provinces or Moroccan Sahara are the terms used by Morocco for Western Sahara, in reference to the part of Western Sahara that lies to the west of the Moroccan Berm...
west of the berm and those in the Sahrawi-controlled region
Free Zone (region)
The Free Zone or Liberated Territories is a term used by the Polisario Front to describe the part of Western Sahara that lies to the east of the Moroccan Berm and west and north of the borders with Algeria and Mauritania, respectively...
and refugee camps
Tindouf Province
Tindouf, also written Tinduf, is the westernmost province of Algeria, having a population of 58,193 as of the 2008 census. Despite the barren landscape, Tindouf is a resource-rich province, with important quantities of iron ore located in the Gara Djebilet area close to the border with Mali...
to the east and in Algeria
Algeria
Algeria , officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria , also formally referred to as the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria, is a country in the Maghreb region of Northwest Africa with Algiers as its capital.In terms of land area, it is the largest country in Africa and the Arab...
. The camps west of the berm
Moroccan Wall
The Berm of Western Sahara is an approximately 2,700 km-long defensive structure, mostly a sand wall , running through Western Sahara and the southeastern portion of Morocco...
are located in Mahbes, Smara
Smara
Smara, also Semara , is a city in the Moroccan-Administered Western Sahara, with a population estimated at 42,056.-History:The largest city in its province, Smara was founded in the Saguia el-Hamra as an oasis for travellers in 1869. It is the only major city in Western Sahara that was not founded...
, Umm Dreiga
Umm Dreiga
Umm Dreiga is an oasis town in the Río de Oro area of Western Sahara.It served as a shelter & improvisated refugee camp for Sahrawi refugees in late 1975 and early 1976, after the Moroccan and Mauritanian annexation of Western Sahara . In February 1976, the Moroccan Air Force used napalm and...
and Auserd
Auserd
Ausert or Auserd is a town in Oued-Dahab Laguera province in the Moroccan-controlled part of Western Sahara. The number of permanent structures in Auserd is low, as many residents follow the traditionally nomadic Bedouin lifestyle of the Sahrawis, passing through the town only temporarily and...
. The eastern camps include Bir Lehlou
Bir Lehlou
Bir Lehlou is a small town in north-eastern Western Sahara, near the Mauritanian border and east of the border wall, in POLISARIO-held territory. It has a dispensary and a school...
, Tifariti
Tifariti
Tifariti is an oasis town located in POLISARIO-controlled Western Sahara, east of the Moroccan Berm, and 15 km. north the Mauritanian border. It is part of what POLISARIO call the Liberated Territories and Morocco call the Buffer Zone. It has a hospital, a school, a mosque and a museum...
, Mehaires, Mijek
Mijek
Mijek is a small town in the Rio de Oro region of Western Sahara. It is located east of the Moroccan Wall, in the Free Zone , 80 km. north of the Mauritanian town of Zouerate and 250 km. east of Dakhla. It has a hospital...
, and Agwanit. There is also a liaison office in Tindouf
Tindouf
Tindouf is the main town in Tindouf Province, Algeria, close to the Mauritanian and Moroccan borders. The region is considered of strategic significance, and it houses Algerian military bases. Since 1975, it also contains several Sahrawi refugee camps operated by the Polisario Front a guerrilla...
which serves as a communication channel with POLISARIO leadership.
Current composition
As of April 6, 2010, MINURSO had a total of 233 uniformed personnel, including 27 troops, 6 police officers and 200 military observers, supported by 95 international civilian personnel, 145 local civilian staff and 23 UN Volunteers. Major troop contributors are Malaysia, RussiaRussia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
and Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
. Armed contingents patrol the no man's land
No man's land
No man's land is a term for land that is unoccupied or is under dispute between parties that leave it unoccupied due to fear or uncertainty. The term was originally used to define a contested territory or a dumping ground for refuse between fiefdoms...
that borders the Moroccan Wall
Moroccan Wall
The Berm of Western Sahara is an approximately 2,700 km-long defensive structure, mostly a sand wall , running through Western Sahara and the southeastern portion of Morocco...
, to safeguard the cease-fire.
- Special Representative of the Secretary-General and Chief of Mission: Hany Abdel-AzizHany Abdel-AzizHany Abdel-Aziz is the Special Representative for Western Sahara of the United Nations and the Head of the United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara .- External links :*...
- Force Commander: Major General Zhao JingminZhao JingminMajor General Zhao Jingmin is the U.N. force commander for the U.N. peacekeeping mission in Western Sahara of the United Nations and the military head of the United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara . He is a member of the People's Liberation Army.-References:...
- Other personnel:
State Sovereign stateA sovereign state, or simply, state, is a state with a defined territory on which it exercises internal and external sovereignty, a permanent population, a government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other sovereign states. It is also normally understood to be a state which is neither...
Military Mil. observers Police Total 56 102 0 158 0 3 0 3 0 2 0 2 0 8 0 8 0 10 0 10 0 7 0 7 0 2 0 2 0 20 2 22 0 6 3 9 0 13 0 13 7 10 0 17 0 1 0 1 0 5 0 5 0 11 0 11 0 7 0 7 0 3 0 3 0 5 0 5 0 2 1 3 20 10 0 30 0 4 0 4 0 8 0 8 0 11 0 11 0 1 0 1 0 20 0 20 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 2 0 3 0 3 0 10 0 10 27 200 6 233
There have been a total of 15 fatalities in MINURSO: five military personnel, a police officer, a military observer, three international civilian personnel, and five local civilian personnel.
Criticisms
In 1995, MINURSO's inability or unwillingness to act against perceived Moroccan manipulation of the process, and abuse of Sahrawi civilians, caused its former deputy chairman Frank Ruddy to deliver a strong attack on the organization; he has since kept up his critique of what he argues is an economically costly and politically corrupt process. Growing criticism has been voiced against the UN Security Council for not establishing a program of human rightsHuman rights
Human rights are "commonly understood as inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being." Human rights are thus conceived as universal and egalitarian . These rights may exist as natural rights or as legal rights, in both national...
(as MINURSO is the only UN mission in the world who has no mandate on them) monitoring for Western Sahara and the Sahrawi population, despite serious reports of numerous abuses.
. This possibility has been denied by France with its veto power on the Security Council.
From 1995 but mostly in 2006-2007 period, MINURSO personnel vandalized archeological deposits in the Free Zone
Free Zone
Free Zone may refer to:*A free economic zone or free port, an area with relaxed customs, immigration, visa, and/or taxation jurisdiction with respect to the country of location...
(POLISARIO-controlled parts of Western Sahara). There are also accusations of looting of prehistorical paintings by individuals from the UN on some of those sites.
In May 2010, the Polisario Front suspended contacts with the MINURSO, because of the failure on implementing the self-determination referendum, and accused the force of "...turning into a protector shield of a colonial fact, the occupation of the Western Sahara by Morocco".
In September 2010, former MINURSO Force Commander, General Esegbuyota Okita stated about the Independence Intifada events:
. He also expressed his regret on the inability of MINURSO members to intervene, because their mandate does not monitor the protection of human rights, stressing the need to include them within the MINURSO mandates.
See also
- Foreign relations of Western SaharaForeign relations of Western SaharaWestern Sahara, formerly the Spanish colony of Spanish Sahara, is a disputed territory claimed by both the Kingdom of Morocco and the Polisario Front...
- History of Western SaharaHistory of Western SaharaThe history of Western Sahara can be traced back to the times of Carthaginian explorer Hanno the Navigator in the 5th century BC. Though few historical records are left from that period, Western Sahara's modern history has its roots linked to some nomadic groups such as the Sanhaja group and the...
- Politics of Western SaharaPolitics of Western SaharaThe politics of Western Sahara take place in a framework of an area claimed by both the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic and the Kingdom of Morocco, which controls the majority of the territory....
- United Nations Security Council Resolution 1720United Nations Security Council Resolution 1720United Nations Security Council Resolution 1720, adopted unanimously on October 31, 2006, after recalling all previous resolutions on the situation in Western Sahara, including resolutions 1495 , 1541 and 1675 , the Council extended the mandate of the United Nations Mission for the Referendum in...
- Western Sahara: Anatomy of a Stalemate by Erik Jensen, former director of MINURSO (ISBN 1-58826-305-3)
- Peacemonger by Marrack GouldingMarrack GouldingSir Marrack Goulding, KCMG was a British diplomat who served more than eleven years as Under-Secretary-General of the United Nations.- Early life :...
, former director of UN peace-keeping missions (ISBN 0-8018-7858-6)