Two-factor models of personality
Encyclopedia
The Two-Factor Model of Personality is a widely used psychological
factor analysis
measurement of personality
, behavior
and temperament
. It most often consists of a matrix
measuring the factor of introversion and extroversion with some form of people
versus task orientation.
mapped the Four Temperaments to a matrix of hot/cold and dry/wet taken from the Four Elements
. Eventually, it was observed:
Therefore, it was evident that the sanguine and choleric shared a common trait: quickness of response (corresponding to "heat"), while the melancholic and phlegmatic shared the opposite, a longer response (coldness). The melancholic and choleric, however, shared a sustained response (dryness), and the sanguine and phlegmatic shared a short-lived response (wetness). That meant, that the choleric and melancholic both would tend to hang on to emotions like anger
, and thus appear more serious and critical than the fun-loving sanguine, and the peaceful phlegmatic. However, the choleric would be characterized by quick expressions of anger (like the sanguine, with the difference being that the sanguine cools off); while the melancholic would build up anger slowly, silently, before exploding. Also, the melancholic and sanguine would be sort of "opposites", as the choleric and phlegmatic, since they have opposite traits.
These are the basis of the two factors that would define temperament in the modern theory.
Ivan Pavlov
(1849–1936), from his work with dogs came up with the factors of Passivity: (Active or Passive) and Extremeness: (Extreme response or Moderate response). His view of the temperaments in dogs was:
His theory of course would also be extended to humans.
Alfred Adler
(1879–1937) measured "activity" (connected with "energy") against "social interest", yielding the four "styles of Life:
These he compared to the choleric, phlegmatic, melancholic and sanguine respectively. http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/adler.html
Erich Fromm
's (1900–1980) factors were acquiring and assimilating things ("assimilation"), and reacting to people ("socialization"). These two factors form four types of character, which he calls Receptive, Exploitative, Hoarding and Marketing.
Also deserving mention is a single scale invented in the 1940s by Karen Horney
(1885–1952). This one dimension measured "movement" towards, against and away from people. This would result in the coping strategies
, in which these three "neurotic" patterns would be paired with a fourth, "healthy" one called "movement with people". These would describe behaviors associated with both extroversion and reacting to people, in which people attempt to avoid getting hurt, by either distancing themselves from others or maintaining self-sufficiency and independence on one hand; or approaching others, attempting to control or exploit them, and otherwise gain power and recognition; or "give in" to them to gain acceptance and approval, on the other.
In 1928, William Moulton Marston
identified four primary emotions, each with an initial feeling tone of either pleasantness or unpleasantness. This led to his viewing people's behavior along two axes, with their attention being either "passive
" or "active
", depending on the individual's perception of his or her environment as either "favor
able" or "antagonistic". By placing the axes at right angles, four quadrants form with each describing a behavioral pattern:
This would be further developed in the 1970s by John G. Geier http://specificaction.com/faqs.shtml#Q17 into the DiSC assessment
System, which grades individual scales of "Dominance", "Influence", "Steadiness", and "Conscientiousness". By now, it would be classified in terms of the two factors; consisting of pairs of Extroverted or "Assertive" aspects (D, I), Introverted or "Passive" aspects (S, C), Task-oriented or "Controlled" aspects (D, C) and social or "Open" aspects (I, S).
The California Psychological Inventory
's CPI 260 Instrument also has similar scales, of Initiates action, Confident in social situations versus Focuses on inner life, Values own privacy; and Rule-favoring, Likes stability, Agrees with others versus Rule-questioning, Has personal, value system, Often disagrees with others and the four "lifestyles" Leader, Supporter, Innovator, and Visualizer.
" between the hot/cold and wet/dry poles, yielding a total of nine temperaments! Four were the original humors, and five were balanced in one or both scales.
Another addition to the two factor models was the creation of a 10 by 10 square grid developed by Robert R. Blake
and Jane Mouton
in their Managerial Grid Model
introduced in 1964. This matrix
graded from 0-9, the factors of "Concern for Production" (X-axis) and "Concern for People" (Y-axis), allowing a moderate
range of scores, which yielded five "leadership styles":
The Thomas Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument
(TKI) used a version of this with "Assertiveness" and "Cooperativeness" as the two factors, also leading to a fifth mode:
FIRO
-B would call the two dimensions Expressed Behavior and Wanted Behavior, and use three separate matrices for the respective areas of Inclusion (social skills) Control (leadership and responsibility-taking) and Affection (deep personal relationships). In 1977, "locator charts" were produced for each area by Dr. Leo Ryan, providing a map of the various scores, following the Managerial Grid model; with unofficial names assigned to different score ranges. They were generally grouped into five main types for each area, in the vein of the Managerial Grid and TKI, except that moderate scores (generally 4, 5) in only one dimension (with the other dimension being high or low) were given separate names, creating nine basic groups for each area (low e/w, low e/high w, low e/moderate w; etc. In the control area, there is a tenth group created by a further division of the low e high w range).
This would form the basis of the Five Temperaments
theory by Dr. Richard G
. and Phyllis Arno, in which the ancient temperaments were mapped to the FIRO-B scales (in all three areas), with Phlegmatic becoming the moderate e/w instead of low e/high w; which was now taken to constitute a fifth temperament called "Supine", which has many of the "introverted and relationship oriented" traits of the other types defined as such, above. (The "Wanted behavior" scale is generally renamed "Responsive behavior"). The moderate scores mixed with high or low are designated "Phlegmatic blends" and divided with 4 being a blend of Phlegmatic with the lower adjacent temperament, and 5 being a blend with the higher adjacent temperament. This results in 13 separate ranges in each area.
Immanuel Kant
(1724–1804) defined his typology by a duality
of the beautiful
and sublime
and concluded it was possible to represent the four temperaments with a square of opposition using the presence or absence of the two attributes. He determined that the phlegmatic type has no interest in either the beautiful or the sublime, so there was an absence of both (sb). The melancholic had a feeling for both (SB), and the sanguine had a predominating feeling for the beautiful, (sB) while the choleric he determined after comparing with the melancholic, lacked a sense of beauty and had only a sense of the sublime (Sb) http://www.friesian.com/types.htm
Hans Eysenck
(1916–1997) was one of the first psychologists to analyze personality differences using a psycho-statistical method (factor analysis
), and his research led him to believe that temperament is biologically based.
In his book Dimensions of Personality (1947) he paired Extraversion (E) which was "the tendency to enjoy positive events", especially social ones with Neuroticism (N) which was the tendency to experience negative emotions, and By pairing the two dimension
s, Eysenck noted how the results were similar to the four ancient temperaments.
He later added a third dimension psychoticism
, resulting in his "P-E-N" three factor model of personality. This has been correlated with two separate factors developed by The Big Five personality traits
(Five Factor Model), called "agreeableness
" and "conscientiousness
"; the former being similar to the people/task orientation scale elaborated above. Neuroticism in Eysenck's case acted like the people/task-orientation scale (except for being inverted as to which temperaments were "high" or "low), but was later separated as a distinct factor in the Big Five.
Carl Jung
in the early 20th century introduced the four factors that would become apart of the later MBTI, and these included extroversion/introversion, sensing and intuition, and thinking/feeling, which would be correlated to Agreeableness, with Judging-Perceiving roughly as Conscientiousness.
Ernst Kretschmer
(1888–1964) divided personality into two "constitutional groups": Schizothymic, which contain a "Psychaesthetic proportion" between sensitive and cold poles, and Cyclothymic which contain a "Diathetic" proportion between gay and sad. The Schizoids consist of the Hyperesthetic (sensitive) and Anesthetic (Cold) characters, and the Cycloids consist of the Depressive (or "melancholic") and Hypomanic characters.
David W. Keirsey would make the connection of the two groups with Myers' Sensors and iNtuitors, providing the two factors for his four temperaments.http://www.innerexplorations.com/catpsy/t2c10.htm. He would rename Sensing to "Observant" or "Concrete", and Intuiting to "Introspection" or "Abstract", and pair it with "Cooperative" versus "Pragmatic" (or "Utilitarian") which would be the "Conscientiousness scale; to form:
Keirsey also divided his temperaments by "Role-Informative"/Role Directive" to form eight "intelligence types"; and finally by E/I, to yield the 16 types of the MBTI. It was when his former student Berens, paired the latter two factors separately that she yielded here Interaction Styles, discussed above. Keirsey also divided the intelligence types by I/E into "roles of interaction".
The Enneagram of Personality
would map its nine types to a matrix, whose scales are "Surface Direction" and "Deep Direction". These are similar to Extroversion and people/task-orientation, but instead of the types being plotted on a scale of 0-9, Horney's original three grades of "towards", "away", and "against" were retained, and now used in both dimensions (graded respectively, as "+", "0" and "-"). This changes the criteria, as the "moderate" (0) grade is considered "away", but this does not necessarily correspond to the moderate extroversion or agreeableness scores of the other instruments.
Psychology
Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. Its immediate goal is to understand individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases. For many, the ultimate goal of psychology is to benefit society...
factor analysis
Factor analysis
Factor analysis is a statistical method used to describe variability among observed, correlated variables in terms of a potentially lower number of unobserved, uncorrelated variables called factors. In other words, it is possible, for example, that variations in three or four observed variables...
measurement of personality
Personality type
Personality type refers to the psychological classification of different types of individuals. Personality types are sometimes distinguished from personality traits, with the latter embodying a smaller grouping of behavioral tendencies. Types are sometimes said to involve qualitative differences...
, behavior
Behavior
Behavior or behaviour refers to the actions and mannerisms made by organisms, systems, or artificial entities in conjunction with its environment, which includes the other systems or organisms around as well as the physical environment...
and temperament
Temperament
In psychology, temperament refers to those aspects of an individual's personality, such as introversion or extroversion, that are often regarded as innate rather than learned...
. It most often consists of a matrix
Matrix (mathematics)
In mathematics, a matrix is a rectangular array of numbers, symbols, or expressions. The individual items in a matrix are called its elements or entries. An example of a matrix with six elements isMatrices of the same size can be added or subtracted element by element...
measuring the factor of introversion and extroversion with some form of people
People
People is a plurality of human beings or other beings possessing enough qualities constituting personhood. It has two usages:* as the plural of person or a group of people People is a plurality of human beings or other beings possessing enough qualities constituting personhood. It has two usages:*...
versus task orientation.
Beginnings
Anciently, GalenGalen
Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus , better known as Galen of Pergamon , was a prominent Roman physician, surgeon and philosopher...
mapped the Four Temperaments to a matrix of hot/cold and dry/wet taken from the Four Elements
Classical element
Many philosophies and worldviews have a set of classical elements believed to reflect the simplest essential parts and principles of which anything consists or upon which the constitution and fundamental powers of anything are based. Most frequently, classical elements refer to ancient beliefs...
. Eventually, it was observed:
- The sanguine temperament showed quick, impulsive and relatively brief reactions. (hot/wet; air)
- The phlegmatic temperament was characterized by a longer response-delay, but the response was also short-lived. (cold/wet; water)
- The choleric temperament manifested a short response time-delay, but the response was sustained for a relatively long time. (hot/dry; fire)
- The melancholic temperament (Also called "Melancholy") exhibited a long response time-delay, and the response was sustained at length, if not, seemingly, permanently. (cold/dry; earth)
Therefore, it was evident that the sanguine and choleric shared a common trait: quickness of response (corresponding to "heat"), while the melancholic and phlegmatic shared the opposite, a longer response (coldness). The melancholic and choleric, however, shared a sustained response (dryness), and the sanguine and phlegmatic shared a short-lived response (wetness). That meant, that the choleric and melancholic both would tend to hang on to emotions like anger
Anger
Anger is an automatic response to ill treatment. It is the way a person indicates he or she will not tolerate certain types of behaviour. It is a feedback mechanism in which an unpleasant stimulus is met with an unpleasant response....
, and thus appear more serious and critical than the fun-loving sanguine, and the peaceful phlegmatic. However, the choleric would be characterized by quick expressions of anger (like the sanguine, with the difference being that the sanguine cools off); while the melancholic would build up anger slowly, silently, before exploding. Also, the melancholic and sanguine would be sort of "opposites", as the choleric and phlegmatic, since they have opposite traits.
These are the basis of the two factors that would define temperament in the modern theory.
Development
In the last few centuries, various psychologists would begin expressing the four temperaments in terms of pairs behaviors that were held in common by two temperaments each.Ivan Pavlov
Ivan Pavlov
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was a famous Russian physiologist. Although he made significant contributions to psychology, he was not in fact a psychologist himself but was a mathematician and actually had strong distaste for the field....
(1849–1936), from his work with dogs came up with the factors of Passivity: (Active or Passive) and Extremeness: (Extreme response or Moderate response). His view of the temperaments in dogs was:
- The Melancholic type (Weak inhibitory): categorized as "weak" dogs;
- Choleric type (Strong excitatory): strong, unbalanced, easily aroused (excitable);
- Sanguine type (Lively): strong, balanced, mobile;
- Phlegmatic type (Calm imperturbable): strong, balanced, sluggish.
His theory of course would also be extended to humans.
Alfred Adler
Alfred Adler
Alfred Adler was an Austrian medical doctor, psychotherapist, and founder of the school of individual psychology. In collaboration with Sigmund Freud and a small group of Freud's colleagues, Adler was among the co-founders of the psychoanalytic movement as a core member of the Vienna...
(1879–1937) measured "activity" (connected with "energy") against "social interest", yielding the four "styles of Life:
- Ruling or Dominant type: high activity, low social interest (Very energetic & aggressive in pursuing their own goals. Can exploit or manipulate others).
- Getting or Leaning type: low activity, high social interest (Often charming, but use their charm to lean on others. Sensitive people who have developed a shell around themselves which protects them, but they must rely on others to carry them through life's difficulties and become dependent).
- Avoiding type: low activity, low social interest (Tends to be passive-aggressive).
- Socially Useful type: high activity, high social interest. (Copes with life's problems within a well-developed framework of social interest. Orients toward success in proper, realistic ways). http://psych.eiu.edu/spencer/Adler.html
These he compared to the choleric, phlegmatic, melancholic and sanguine respectively. http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/adler.html
Erich Fromm
Erich Fromm
Erich Seligmann Fromm was a Jewish German-American social psychologist, psychoanalyst, sociologist, humanistic philosopher, and democratic socialist. He was associated with what became known as the Frankfurt School of critical theory.-Life:Erich Fromm was born on March 23, 1900, at Frankfurt am...
's (1900–1980) factors were acquiring and assimilating things ("assimilation"), and reacting to people ("socialization"). These two factors form four types of character, which he calls Receptive, Exploitative, Hoarding and Marketing.
Also deserving mention is a single scale invented in the 1940s by Karen Horney
Karen Horney
Karen Horney born Danielsen was a German-American psychoanalyst. Her theories questioned some traditional Freudian views, particularly his theory of sexuality, as well as the instinct orientation of psychoanalysis and its genetic psychology...
(1885–1952). This one dimension measured "movement" towards, against and away from people. This would result in the coping strategies
Coping Strategies
Coping Strategies is treatment designed for posttraumatic stress disorder within United States Armed Forces personnel and their families by the charitable organization Patriot Outreach...
, in which these three "neurotic" patterns would be paired with a fourth, "healthy" one called "movement with people". These would describe behaviors associated with both extroversion and reacting to people, in which people attempt to avoid getting hurt, by either distancing themselves from others or maintaining self-sufficiency and independence on one hand; or approaching others, attempting to control or exploit them, and otherwise gain power and recognition; or "give in" to them to gain acceptance and approval, on the other.
Factors integrated into modern instruments
As the twentieth century progressed, numerous other instruments were devised measuring not only temperament, but also various individual aspects of personality and behavior, and several began using forms of extroversion and the developing category of people versus task focus as the factors.In 1928, William Moulton Marston
William Moulton Marston
Dr. William Moulton Marston , also known by the pen name Charles Moulton, was an American psychologist, feminist theorist, inventor and comic book writer who created the character Wonder Woman...
identified four primary emotions, each with an initial feeling tone of either pleasantness or unpleasantness. This led to his viewing people's behavior along two axes, with their attention being either "passive
Passive
Passive may refer to:* "Passive" , by A Perfect Circle* Passive voice, a grammatical voice common in many languages* Passive house, a standard for energy efficiency in buildings* Passive psi, psychic abilities involving cognition...
" or "active
Active
Active may refer to:Human Activity* An active lifestyle, a lifestyle characterized by frequent or various social, intellectual, and physical activities* An "active" in a fraternity or sororityComputers and electronics...
", depending on the individual's perception of his or her environment as either "favor
Favor
Favor, Favour, or Favors, may refer to:* Favor , a deed in which help is voluntarily provided* Party favor, a small gift given to the guests at a party...
able" or "antagonistic". By placing the axes at right angles, four quadrants form with each describing a behavioral pattern:
- Dominance, which produces activity in an antagonistic environment; with a feeling of unpleasantness until stimulus is acted upon
- Compliance, which produces produces passivity in an antagonistic environment; with a feeling of unpleasantness until stimulus is reconciled
- Inducement, which produces activity in a favorable environment; with a feeling of pleasantness increasing as interaction increases
- Submission, which produces passivity in a favorable environment; with a feeling of pleasantness increasing as yielding increases
This would be further developed in the 1970s by John G. Geier http://specificaction.com/faqs.shtml#Q17 into the DiSC assessment
DISC assessment
DISC is a group of psychological inventories developed by John Geier, and others, and based on the 1928 work of psychologist William Moulton Marston and the original behavioralist Walter V. Clarke and others.-History:...
System, which grades individual scales of "Dominance", "Influence", "Steadiness", and "Conscientiousness". By now, it would be classified in terms of the two factors; consisting of pairs of Extroverted or "Assertive" aspects (D, I), Introverted or "Passive" aspects (S, C), Task-oriented or "Controlled" aspects (D, C) and social or "Open" aspects (I, S).
The California Psychological Inventory
California Psychological Inventory
The California Psychological Inventory is a self-report inventory created by Harrison Gough and currently published by Consulting Psychologists Press. The test was first published in 1956, and the most recent revision was published in 1987. It was created in a similar manner to the Minnesota...
's CPI 260 Instrument also has similar scales, of Initiates action, Confident in social situations versus Focuses on inner life, Values own privacy; and Rule-favoring, Likes stability, Agrees with others versus Rule-questioning, Has personal, value system, Often disagrees with others and the four "lifestyles" Leader, Supporter, Innovator, and Visualizer.
Two-Factors expanded to measure more than four types
Galen also had intermediate scales for "balanceBalance
- Equipment :* Balance beam, a piece of gymnastics apparatus.* Balance board, a piece of training equipment.* Balancing machine, a machine that balances mechanical rotating parts to lessen vibration.* Balance wheel, a watch component....
" between the hot/cold and wet/dry poles, yielding a total of nine temperaments! Four were the original humors, and five were balanced in one or both scales.
Another addition to the two factor models was the creation of a 10 by 10 square grid developed by Robert R. Blake
Robert R. Blake
Dr. Robert R. Blake was an American management theoretician. He did pioneer work the field of organizational dynamics.Together with Jane S...
and Jane Mouton
Jane Mouton
Jane Srygley Mouton was a management theorist, remembered in particular for developing the Managerial grid model with Robert Blake.-Biography:...
in their Managerial Grid Model
Managerial grid model
The managerial grid model is a behavioral leadership model developed by Robert R. Blake and Jane Mouton. This model originally identified five different leadership styles based on the concern for people and the concern for production. The optimal leadership style in this model is based on Theory...
introduced in 1964. This matrix
Matrix (mathematics)
In mathematics, a matrix is a rectangular array of numbers, symbols, or expressions. The individual items in a matrix are called its elements or entries. An example of a matrix with six elements isMatrices of the same size can be added or subtracted element by element...
graded from 0-9, the factors of "Concern for Production" (X-axis) and "Concern for People" (Y-axis), allowing a moderate
Moderate
In politics and religion, a moderate is an individual who is not extreme, partisan or radical. In recent years, political moderates has gained traction as a buzzword....
range of scores, which yielded five "leadership styles":
- Impoverished (low X, Y)
- Produce or Perish (high X low Y)
- Country Club (low X high Y)
- Team (high X and Y)
- Middle of the Road (moderate X, Y)
The Thomas Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument
Thomas Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument
The Thomas Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument is a conflict style inventory, which is a tool developed to measure an individual's response to conflict situations.-Development:...
(TKI) used a version of this with "Assertiveness" and "Cooperativeness" as the two factors, also leading to a fifth mode:
- Competing, (assertive, uncooperative)
- Avoiding (unassertive, uncooperative)
- Accommodating (unassertive, cooperative)
- Collaborating (assertive, cooperative)
- Compromising (intermediate assertiveness and cooperativeness).
FIRO
Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation
Fundamental interpersonal relations orientation is a theory of interpersonal relations, introduced by William Schutz in 1958. This theory mainly explains the interpersonal underworld of a small group...
-B would call the two dimensions Expressed Behavior and Wanted Behavior, and use three separate matrices for the respective areas of Inclusion (social skills) Control (leadership and responsibility-taking) and Affection (deep personal relationships). In 1977, "locator charts" were produced for each area by Dr. Leo Ryan, providing a map of the various scores, following the Managerial Grid model; with unofficial names assigned to different score ranges. They were generally grouped into five main types for each area, in the vein of the Managerial Grid and TKI, except that moderate scores (generally 4, 5) in only one dimension (with the other dimension being high or low) were given separate names, creating nine basic groups for each area (low e/w, low e/high w, low e/moderate w; etc. In the control area, there is a tenth group created by a further division of the low e high w range).
This would form the basis of the Five Temperaments
Five Temperaments
Five temperaments is a theory in psychology, that expands upon the Four Temperaments proposed in ancient medical theory.The development of a theory of five temperaments begins with the Two-factor models of personality and the work of the late William Schutz, and his FIRO-B program...
theory by Dr. Richard G
Richard Gene Arno
Dr. Richard Gene Arno is the founder of the and currently serves as the Chaplain to N.C.C.A.'s staff and members. He served as the Director of Counseling for the Christian Broadcasting Network's The 700 Club for seven years prior to conducting his research for Treatment Theory and Therapy...
. and Phyllis Arno, in which the ancient temperaments were mapped to the FIRO-B scales (in all three areas), with Phlegmatic becoming the moderate e/w instead of low e/high w; which was now taken to constitute a fifth temperament called "Supine", which has many of the "introverted and relationship oriented" traits of the other types defined as such, above. (The "Wanted behavior" scale is generally renamed "Responsive behavior"). The moderate scores mixed with high or low are designated "Phlegmatic blends" and divided with 4 being a blend of Phlegmatic with the lower adjacent temperament, and 5 being a blend with the higher adjacent temperament. This results in 13 separate ranges in each area.
Other Factor pairs
Other factors devised along the way measured other aspects of personality, mostly cognitive aspects. This would form a second strain of temperament theory; one which enjoys the most popularity today.Immanuel Kant
Immanuel Kant
Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher from Königsberg , researching, lecturing and writing on philosophy and anthropology at the end of the 18th Century Enlightenment....
(1724–1804) defined his typology by a duality
Dualism
Dualism denotes a state of two parts. The term 'dualism' was originally coined to denote co-eternal binary opposition, a meaning that is preserved in metaphysical and philosophical duality discourse but has been diluted in general or common usages. Dualism can refer to moral dualism, Dualism (from...
of the beautiful
Beauty
Beauty is a characteristic of a person, animal, place, object, or idea that provides a perceptual experience of pleasure, meaning, or satisfaction. Beauty is studied as part of aesthetics, sociology, social psychology, and culture...
and sublime
Sublime (philosophy)
In aesthetics, the sublime is the quality of greatness, whether physical, moral, intellectual, metaphysical, aesthetic, spiritual or artistic...
and concluded it was possible to represent the four temperaments with a square of opposition using the presence or absence of the two attributes. He determined that the phlegmatic type has no interest in either the beautiful or the sublime, so there was an absence of both (sb). The melancholic had a feeling for both (SB), and the sanguine had a predominating feeling for the beautiful, (sB) while the choleric he determined after comparing with the melancholic, lacked a sense of beauty and had only a sense of the sublime (Sb) http://www.friesian.com/types.htm
Hans Eysenck
Hans Eysenck
Hans Jürgen Eysenck was a German-British psychologist who spent most of his career in Britain, best remembered for his work on intelligence and personality, though he worked in a wide range of areas...
(1916–1997) was one of the first psychologists to analyze personality differences using a psycho-statistical method (factor analysis
Factor analysis
Factor analysis is a statistical method used to describe variability among observed, correlated variables in terms of a potentially lower number of unobserved, uncorrelated variables called factors. In other words, it is possible, for example, that variations in three or four observed variables...
), and his research led him to believe that temperament is biologically based.
In his book Dimensions of Personality (1947) he paired Extraversion (E) which was "the tendency to enjoy positive events", especially social ones with Neuroticism (N) which was the tendency to experience negative emotions, and By pairing the two dimension
Dimension
In physics and mathematics, the dimension of a space or object is informally defined as the minimum number of coordinates needed to specify any point within it. Thus a line has a dimension of one because only one coordinate is needed to specify a point on it...
s, Eysenck noted how the results were similar to the four ancient temperaments.
- High N, High E = Choleric
- High N, Low E = Melancholy (also called "Melancholic")
- Low N, High E = Sanguine
- Low N, Low E = Phlegmatic
He later added a third dimension psychoticism
Psychoticism
Psychoticism is one of the three traits used by the psychologist Hans Eysenck in his P-E-N model model of personality. Psychoticism refers to a personality pattern typified by aggressiveness and interpersonal hostility.High levels of this trait were believed by Eysenck to be linked to increased...
, resulting in his "P-E-N" three factor model of personality. This has been correlated with two separate factors developed by The Big Five personality traits
Big Five personality traits
In contemporary psychology, the "Big Five" factors of personality are five broad domains or dimensions of personality which are used to describe human personality....
(Five Factor Model), called "agreeableness
Agreeableness
Agreeableness is a tendency to be pleasant and accommodating in social situations. In contemporary personality psychology, agreeableness is one of the five major dimensions of personality structure, reflecting individual differences in concern for cooperation and social harmony. People who score...
" and "conscientiousness
Conscientiousness
Conscientiousness is the trait of being painstaking and careful, or the quality of acting according to the dictates of one's conscience. It includes such elements as self-discipline, carefulness, thoroughness, organization, deliberation , and need for achievement. It is an aspect of what has...
"; the former being similar to the people/task orientation scale elaborated above. Neuroticism in Eysenck's case acted like the people/task-orientation scale (except for being inverted as to which temperaments were "high" or "low), but was later separated as a distinct factor in the Big Five.
Carl Jung
Carl Jung
Carl Gustav Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist and the founder of Analytical Psychology. Jung is considered the first modern psychiatrist to view the human psyche as "by nature religious" and make it the focus of exploration. Jung is one of the best known researchers in the field of dream analysis and...
in the early 20th century introduced the four factors that would become apart of the later MBTI, and these included extroversion/introversion, sensing and intuition, and thinking/feeling, which would be correlated to Agreeableness, with Judging-Perceiving roughly as Conscientiousness.
Ernst Kretschmer
Ernst Kretschmer
Ernst Kretschmer Prof. Dr. med. Dr. phil. h.c., was a German psychiatrist who researched the human constitution and established a typology...
(1888–1964) divided personality into two "constitutional groups": Schizothymic, which contain a "Psychaesthetic proportion" between sensitive and cold poles, and Cyclothymic which contain a "Diathetic" proportion between gay and sad. The Schizoids consist of the Hyperesthetic (sensitive) and Anesthetic (Cold) characters, and the Cycloids consist of the Depressive (or "melancholic") and Hypomanic characters.
David W. Keirsey would make the connection of the two groups with Myers' Sensors and iNtuitors, providing the two factors for his four temperaments.http://www.innerexplorations.com/catpsy/t2c10.htm. He would rename Sensing to "Observant" or "Concrete", and Intuiting to "Introspection" or "Abstract", and pair it with "Cooperative" versus "Pragmatic" (or "Utilitarian") which would be the "Conscientiousness scale; to form:
- SP Artisan (Concrete, Pragmatic)
- SJ Guardian (Concrete, Cooperative)
- NT Rational (Abstract, Pragmatic)
- NF Idealist (Abstract, Cooperative)
Keirsey also divided his temperaments by "Role-Informative"/Role Directive" to form eight "intelligence types"; and finally by E/I, to yield the 16 types of the MBTI. It was when his former student Berens, paired the latter two factors separately that she yielded here Interaction Styles, discussed above. Keirsey also divided the intelligence types by I/E into "roles of interaction".
The Enneagram of Personality
Enneagram of Personality
The Enneagram of Personality is a model of human personality which is principally used as a typology. Principally developed by Oscar Ichazo and Claudio Naranjo, it is also partly based on earlier teachings of G. I. Gurdjieff...
would map its nine types to a matrix, whose scales are "Surface Direction" and "Deep Direction". These are similar to Extroversion and people/task-orientation, but instead of the types being plotted on a scale of 0-9, Horney's original three grades of "towards", "away", and "against" were retained, and now used in both dimensions (graded respectively, as "+", "0" and "-"). This changes the criteria, as the "moderate" (0) grade is considered "away", but this does not necessarily correspond to the moderate extroversion or agreeableness scores of the other instruments.
Table of Theories and Instruments using Extroversion and People-Task-orientation
| Date | Founder | Extroversion Scales | People-task orientation scale | Introverted, Task-Oriented | Extroverted, Task-Oriented | Extroverted, Relationship-Oriented | Introverted, Relationship Oriented | Moderate |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| c. 190 | Galen Galen Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus , better known as Galen of Pergamon , was a prominent Roman physician, surgeon and philosopher... 's four temperaments |
response-delay (quick, slow) |
response-sustain (short, long) |
melancholic | choleric | sanguine Sanguine Sanguine is chalk of a reddish color, often called the true colour of blood. tending to brown, used in drawing, The word also describes any drawing done in sanguine.-Technique:... |
phlegmatic | Not Recognized |
| c. 1900 | Ivan Pavlov Ivan Pavlov Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was a famous Russian physiologist. Although he made significant contributions to psychology, he was not in fact a psychologist himself but was a mathematician and actually had strong distaste for the field.... 's four temperaments |
Passivity: (Active or Passive) |
Extremeness: (Extreme response or Moderate response) |
melancholic (Weak inhibitory) | choleric (Strong excitatory) | sanguine Sanguine Sanguine is chalk of a reddish color, often called the true colour of blood. tending to brown, used in drawing, The word also describes any drawing done in sanguine.-Technique:... (Lively) |
phlegmatic (Calm imperturbable) | Not Recognized |
| c. 1900 | Alfred Adler Alfred Adler Alfred Adler was an Austrian medical doctor, psychotherapist, and founder of the school of individual psychology. In collaboration with Sigmund Freud and a small group of Freud's colleagues, Adler was among the co-founders of the psychoanalytic movement as a core member of the Vienna... 's four Styles of Life |
"activity" | "social interest" | Avoiding | Ruling or Dominant | Socially Useful | Getting or Leaning | Not Recognized |
| c. 1947 | Eric Fromm Eric Fromm Eric Fromm is a former tennis player from the United States. Perhaps Fromm's best result was reaching the fourth round of the French Open in 1983 in singles, where he lost comprehensively to Jimmy Connors.... 's four Types of Character |
assimilation | socialization | Hoarding | Exploitative | Marketing | Receptive | Not Recognized |
| c. 1960s | Stuart Atkins LIFO's four Orientations To Life | Planning vs.Doing | Directing vs. Inspiring | Conserving-Holding | Controlling-Taking | Adapting-Dealing | Supporting-Giving | Not Recognized |
| c. 1928 | William Marston and John G. Geier DiSC assessment DISC assessment DISC is a group of psychological inventories developed by John Geier, and others, and based on the 1928 work of psychologist William Moulton Marston and the original behavioralist Walter V. Clarke and others.-History:... |
Assertive/ Passive |
Open/ Controlled |
Conscien- tiousness |
Dominance | Influence | Steadiness | Not Recognized |
| c. 1960s | David Merrill, "Social Styles" | Assertiveness (Ask-Tell) | Responsiveness (Control-Emote) | Analytical | Driving | Expressive | Amiable | Not Recognized |
| c. 1996 | Tony Alessandra Personality Styles | Indirect/Direct | Open/Guarded | Thinker | Director | Socializer | Relater | Not Recognized |
| c. 2001 | Linda V. Berens' four Interaction Styles Interaction Styles Interaction Styles are groupings of the 16 types of the MBTI instrument of psychometrics and Jungian psychology. The Interaction Styles model was developed by Linda Berens, PhD, founder of the Temperament Research Institute... |
Initiating-Responding | Informing- Directing |
Chart The Course | In Charge | Get Things Going | Behind the Scenes | Not Recognized |
| 1958 | MBTI codes | E/I, | Informative/Directive (mapped by David Keirsey David Keirsey David West Keirsey , is an internationally renowned psychologist, a professor emeritus at California State University, Fullerton, and the author of several books... ) |
ISTJ, INTJ, ISTP, INFJ | ESTJ, ENTJ, ESTP, ENFJ | ESFP, ENFP, ESFJ, ENTP | ISFP, INFP, ISFJ, INTP | Not Recognized |
| c. 1948 | California Psychological Inventory California Psychological Inventory The California Psychological Inventory is a self-report inventory created by Harrison Gough and currently published by Consulting Psychologists Press. The test was first published in 1956, and the most recent revision was published in 1987. It was created in a similar manner to the Minnesota... CPI 260 |
action, social confidence/ inner life, privacy |
Rule-favoring /questioning, stability/value system, Agreeable/ disagreeable |
Visualizer | Leader | Innovator | Supporter | Not Recognized |
| 1964 | Blake-Mouton Managerial Grid Model Managerial grid model The managerial grid model is a behavioral leadership model developed by Robert R. Blake and Jane Mouton. This model originally identified five different leadership styles based on the concern for people and the concern for production. The optimal leadership style in this model is based on Theory... |
Concern for People | Concern for Productivity |
Impoverished | Produce or Perish | Team Type | Country Club | Middle of the Road |
| 1973 | Jay Hall Conflict Managementhttp://www.afc-ispi.org/Repository/Conflict-Management%20survey.pdf | Concern for personal goals | Concern for relationships | Leave-lose/win | Win/lose | Synergistic; Win/win | Yield-lose/win | Mini-win/mini-lose |
| 1974 | Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Modeshttp://www.cpp.com/images/reports/smp48148.pdf | Assertiveness | Cooperativeness | Avoiding | Competing | Collaborating | Accommodating | Compromising |
| c. 1958 | William Schutz, FIRO Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation Fundamental interpersonal relations orientation is a theory of interpersonal relations, introduced by William Schutz in 1958. This theory mainly explains the interpersonal underworld of a small group... -B |
Expressed | Wanted | See FIRO Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation Fundamental interpersonal relations orientation is a theory of interpersonal relations, introduced by William Schutz in 1958. This theory mainly explains the interpersonal underworld of a small group... article for score names. |
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| c. 1984 | The Arno Profile System(Five Temperaments Five Temperaments Five temperaments is a theory in psychology, that expands upon the Four Temperaments proposed in ancient medical theory.The development of a theory of five temperaments begins with the Two-factor models of personality and the work of the late William Schutz, and his FIRO-B program... ) |
Expressive | Responsive | Melancholy | Choleric | Sanguine | Supine | Phlegmatic |
Tables of Systems using other factors
| Founder | first factor | second factor | Low E/Low N | High E/High N | High E/Low N | Low E/High N |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Eysenck Eysenck Eysenck is a surname, and may refer to*Hans Jürgen Eysenck , psychology professor*Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, a psychological test developed by Hans Eysenck*Michael Eysenck , psychology professor, son of Hans... 's four temperament Temperament In psychology, temperament refers to those aspects of an individual's personality, such as introversion or extroversion, that are often regarded as innate rather than learned... s |
extroversion, | "Neuroticism Neuroticism Neuroticism is a fundamental personality trait in the study of psychology. It is an enduring tendency to experience negative emotional states. Individuals who score high on neuroticism are more likely than the average to experience such feelings as anxiety, anger, guilt, and depressed mood... " |
Phlegmatic | Sanguine | Choleric | Melancholic |
Factors of Perception
| Date | Founder | first factor | second factor | Low first and second factors | high first factor low second factor | high first and second factors | low first factor, high second factor |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| c. 1800 | Kant KANT KANT is a computer algebra system for mathematicians interested in algebraic number theory, performing sophisticated computations in algebraic number fields, in global function fields, and in local fields. KASH is the associated command line interface... 's four temperament Temperament In psychology, temperament refers to those aspects of an individual's personality, such as introversion or extroversion, that are often regarded as innate rather than learned... s |
recognition of beauty | recognition of sublime | Phlegmatic | Sanguine | Melancholic | Choleric |
| c.1920 | Kretschmer Ernst Kretschmer Ernst Kretschmer Prof. Dr. med. Dr. phil. h.c., was a German psychiatrist who researched the human constitution and established a typology... 's four characters |
Schizothymic (sensitive/cold) | Cyclothymic (gay/sad) | Anesthetic | Hypomanic | Depressive | Hyperesthetic |
| c. 1978 | Keirsey's four temperament Temperament In psychology, temperament refers to those aspects of an individual's personality, such as introversion or extroversion, that are often regarded as innate rather than learned... s |
"Concrete"/Abstract" (Sensing/Intuitive), |
"Cooperative"/"Pragmatic" | Rational | Artisan | Guardian | Idealist |
Enneagram
| Deep (long-term) Direction | Surface (short-term) Direction | -/- | -/+ | +/+ | +/- | 0/0 | 0/- | 0/+ | -/0 | +/0 |
| (- 0 +) | (- 0 +) | Type 8 "Leader" | Type 2 "Helper" | Type 6 "Loyalist" | Type 3 "Motivator" | Type 4 "Individualist" | Type 1 "Reformer" | Type 7 "Enthusiast" | Type 5 "Investigator" | Type 9 "Peacemaker" |
See also
Five-Factor Model of personalityBig Five personality traits
In contemporary psychology, the "Big Five" factors of personality are five broad domains or dimensions of personality which are used to describe human personality....