Tonkawa language
Encyclopedia
The Tonkawa language was spoken in Oklahoma
, Texas
, and New Mexico
by the Tonkawa
people. A language isolate
, with no known related languages, Tonkawa is now extinct. Members of the Tonkawa tribe now speak only English
.
There are five types of syllabe arrangements: (C - consonant CC - consonant cluster V - vowel)
s:
s:
Repeated or Identical Consonants are treated as one unit, however, the condition that causes this repetition has not been fully analyzed.
There are cases where the glottal stop is not used in the cluster or combination
There are certain consonants that can either begin or end in a cluster. However if the cluster begins the syllable, there can be no intervening vowel.
Final Stem Syllables
An interesting feature of Tonkawan phonology is that the vowels in even-numbered syllables are reduced. That is, long vowels are shortened, while short vowels disappear. Analyses of this were given by Kisseberth (1970), Phelps (1973, 1975) and Noske (1993).
These are distinguished by hyphens. Example: ka-la 'mouth
The morphemes in Tonkawa can be divided as follows:
I. Themes
In Tonkawa the them is composed of morphologic units. The basic unit is the stem. The stem is composed of two elements (the consonant and vowel) and modified by affixes. The theme, or stem, is functional, which means it changes as more affixation is added. This leads to the fusion of the stem and affix where it becomes difficult to isolate the word into its smaller units.
II. Affixes
III. Enclitics
The differenation between subject and object is shown in the word ending, aka the suffix. While the word order tends to be subject, object, verb (SOV), compounding words is very common in Tonkawa. Reduplication is very common in Tonkawa and affects only the verb themes. Usually only one syllable is duplicated, and this duplication symbolizes a repeated action, vigorous action, or a plural subject.
Noun Suffixes
Pronouns
Pronouns are only used for emphasis on the subject and are affixated as prefixes. Person and number are usually indicated by the affixation of the verb. Most pronouns are bound themes, especially the demonstrative pronouns.
Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative adverbs can be formed by adding -ca 'place', -l 'direction', -c 'manner' to the demonstrative pronouns below.
Example: wa: 'that one aforementioned' + ca 'place = 'wa:-ca 'that place aforementioned'
Interrogative pronouns can be formed by adding the prefix he- to the demonstrative pronouns as well, using the same format for the demonstrative adverbs.
Example: he 'interrogative' + te: 'this' + l 'direction' = he-te:-l 'where'
Indefinite pronouns can also be formed with affixation. (Interrogative + ʔax)
Example: hecu: 'what' + ʔax = hecu:-ʔax 'anything, something, anyone, someone'
Verb Suffixes
Verb suffixes are important in Tonkaway because they usually indicate the tense, negativity, and manner of the action performed.
used on the Tonkawa Tribe's website is similar to Americanist phonetic notation
.
Long vowels are indicated with a following middle dot < · >. The affricate /ts/ is written as < c >. The glottal stop /ʔ/ is written as either an apostrophe < ' > or with a superscript question mark < ? >. The palatal glide /j/ is written as < y >.
The phonemic orthography used in Hoijer's Tonkawa Texts is a later version of Americanist transcription. It uses a colon for long vowels < : > and the traditional glottal stop symbol < ʔ >.
some of the examples of it would be like salt it is called mummun and peper is mummunchicew
Gloss:
In this gloss, S is an abbreviation for "it is said", and afm for "the aforementioned".
Oklahoma
Oklahoma is a state located in the South Central region of the United States of America. With an estimated 3,751,351 residents as of the 2010 census and a land area of 68,667 square miles , Oklahoma is the 28th most populous and 20th-largest state...
, Texas
Texas
Texas is the second largest U.S. state by both area and population, and the largest state by area in the contiguous United States.The name, based on the Caddo word "Tejas" meaning "friends" or "allies", was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves and to the region of their settlement in...
, and New Mexico
New Mexico
New Mexico is a state located in the southwest and western regions of the United States. New Mexico is also usually considered one of the Mountain States. With a population density of 16 per square mile, New Mexico is the sixth-most sparsely inhabited U.S...
by the Tonkawa
Tonkawa
The Tickanwa•tic Tribe , better known as the Tonkawa , are a Native American people indigenous to present-day Oklahoma and Texas. They once spoke the now-extinct Tonkawa language believed to have been a language isolate not related to any other indigenous tongues...
people. A language isolate
Language isolate
A language isolate, in the absolute sense, is a natural language with no demonstrable genealogical relationship with other languages; that is, one that has not been demonstrated to descend from an ancestor common with any other language. They are in effect language families consisting of a single...
, with no known related languages, Tonkawa is now extinct. Members of the Tonkawa tribe now speak only English
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
.
The Syllable
The Tonkawa language is a syllabic language that bases its word and sentence prosody on even stressed syllables.- Disyllabic words are when the stress is placed on the final syllable.
- Polysyllabic words are when the stress is moved to the next to last syllabe, the penault.
There are five types of syllabe arrangements: (C - consonant CC - consonant cluster V - vowel)
- C + V → ka-la 'mouth'
- C + V + C → tan-kol 'back of head'
- CC + V → sʔa-ko 'he scrapes it'
- CC + V + C → mʔe-t-no 'lightning strikes him'
- C + V + ʔs or sʔ/ lʔ/ jʔ → jam-xoʔs 'I paint his face'
Vowels
Tonkawa has 10 vowelVowel
In phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, such as English ah! or oh! , pronounced with an open vocal tract so that there is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis. This contrasts with consonants, such as English sh! , where there is a constriction or closure at some...
s:
| Front Front vowel A front vowel is a type of vowel sound used in some spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a front vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far in front as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant. Front vowels are sometimes also... |
Back Back vowel A back vowel is a type of vowel sound used in spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a back vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far back as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant. Back vowels are sometimes also called dark... |
|||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| short Vowel length In linguistics, vowel length is the perceived duration of a vowel sound. Often the chroneme, or the "longness", acts like a consonant, and may etymologically be one, such as in Australian English. While not distinctive in most dialects of English, vowel length is an important phonemic factor in... |
long Vowel length In linguistics, vowel length is the perceived duration of a vowel sound. Often the chroneme, or the "longness", acts like a consonant, and may etymologically be one, such as in Australian English. While not distinctive in most dialects of English, vowel length is an important phonemic factor in... |
short Vowel length In linguistics, vowel length is the perceived duration of a vowel sound. Often the chroneme, or the "longness", acts like a consonant, and may etymologically be one, such as in Australian English. While not distinctive in most dialects of English, vowel length is an important phonemic factor in... |
long Vowel length In linguistics, vowel length is the perceived duration of a vowel sound. Often the chroneme, or the "longness", acts like a consonant, and may etymologically be one, such as in Australian English. While not distinctive in most dialects of English, vowel length is an important phonemic factor in... |
short Vowel length In linguistics, vowel length is the perceived duration of a vowel sound. Often the chroneme, or the "longness", acts like a consonant, and may etymologically be one, such as in Australian English. While not distinctive in most dialects of English, vowel length is an important phonemic factor in... |
long Vowel length In linguistics, vowel length is the perceived duration of a vowel sound. Often the chroneme, or the "longness", acts like a consonant, and may etymologically be one, such as in Australian English. While not distinctive in most dialects of English, vowel length is an important phonemic factor in... |
|
| High Close vowel A close vowel is a type of vowel sound used in many spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a close vowel is that the tongue is positioned as close as possible to the roof of the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant.This term is prescribed by the... |
i | iː | u | uː | ||
| Mid Mid vowel A mid vowel is a vowel sound used in some spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a mid vowel is that the tongue is positioned mid-way between an open vowel and a close vowel... |
e | eː | o | oː | ||
| Low Open vowel An open vowel is defined as a vowel sound in which the tongue is positioned as far as possible from the roof of the mouth. Open vowels are sometimes also called low vowels in reference to the low position of the tongue... |
a | aː | ||||
- Each vowel is distinguished by the quality of sound and the length of the vowel.
- The vowels occur in five pairs that have differing vowel lengthVowel lengthIn linguistics, vowel length is the perceived duration of a vowel sound. Often the chroneme, or the "longness", acts like a consonant, and may etymologically be one, such as in Australian English. While not distinctive in most dialects of English, vowel length is an important phonemic factor in...
s (i.e. short vowels vs. long vowels). - In the front and the mid back vowel pairs, the short vowels are phonetically lower than their high counterparts: /i/ → ɪ, /e/ → ɛ, /o/ → ɔ.
- The low vowels /a, aː/ vary between central and back articulations: [a~ɑ, aː~ɑː].
- Vowels that are followed by j and w are slightly raised in their position of articulation
Consonants
Tonkawa has 15 consonantConsonant
In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. Examples are , pronounced with the lips; , pronounced with the front of the tongue; , pronounced with the back of the tongue; , pronounced in the throat; and ,...
s:
| Bilabial | Coronal Coronal consonant Coronal consonants are consonants articulated with the flexible front part of the tongue. Only the coronal consonants can be divided into apical , laminal , domed , or subapical , as well as a few rarer orientations, because only the front of the tongue has such... |
Dorsal Dorsal consonant Dorsal consonants are articulated with the mid body of the tongue . They contrast with coronal consonants articulated with the flexible front of the tongue, and radical consonants articulated with the root of the tongue.-Function:... |
Glottal Glottal consonant Glottal consonants, also called laryngeal consonants, are consonants articulated with the glottis. Many phoneticians consider them, or at least the so-called fricative, to be transitional states of the glottis without a point of articulation as other consonants have; in fact, some do not consider... |
||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| plain | labial | ||||
| Plosive | p | t | k | kʷ | ʔ |
| Affricate | ts | ||||
| Fricative | s | x | xʷ | h | |
| Nasal Nasal consonant A nasal consonant is a type of consonant produced with a lowered velum in the mouth, allowing air to escape freely through the nose. Examples of nasal consonants in English are and , in words such as nose and mouth.- Definition :... |
m | n | |||
| Approximant | l | j | w | ||
- The affricate /ts/ and fricative /s/ vary freely between dental and postalveolarPostalveolar consonantPostalveolar consonants are consonants articulated with the tongue near or touching the back of the alveolar ridge, further back in the mouth than the alveolar consonants, which are at the ridge itself, but not as far back as the hard palate...
articulations, i.e. [ts~tʃ] and [s~ʃ]. There is a tendency for [ʃ] to occur at the end of words (but no tendency for [tʃ]). - The other coronals /t, n, l/ are consistently dental.
- The dorsal obstruentObstruentAn obstruent is a consonant sound formed by obstructing airflow, causing increased air pressure in the vocal tract, such as [k], [d͡ʒ] and [f]. In phonetics, articulation may be divided into two large classes: obstruents and sonorants....
s are normally velarVelar consonantVelars are consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue against the soft palate, the back part of the roof of the mouth, known also as the velum)....
, but palatalPalatal consonantPalatal consonants are consonants articulated with the body of the tongue raised against the hard palate...
before front vowels /i, iː, e, eː/:- /k, kʷ, x, xʷ/ → [c, cʷ, ç, çʷ]
- The dorsal approximants /j, w/ are consistently palatal and labiovelar respectively.
Consonant Clusters or Combinations
There are two environments in which consonant clusters occur in Tonkawa:- when a consonant is repeated
- when the cluster is within the syllable
Repeated or Identical Consonants are treated as one unit, however, the condition that causes this repetition has not been fully analyzed.
- Example: sʔa-ko 'he scrapes it' versus mʔe-t-no 'lightning strikes him'
There are cases where the glottal stop is not used in the cluster or combination
There are certain consonants that can either begin or end in a cluster. However if the cluster begins the syllable, there can be no intervening vowel.
- Initial Cluster Consonants: kʷ, m, n, s, x
- Final Cluster Consonants: ʔ
Phonological Processes and Morphophonemics
Initial stem syllables that begin with h-- the h- is dropped when a prefix is added
- if the syllable is C + V, then the vowel is lengthened and gived the quality of the stem vowel.
- if the syllable ends in a consonant, then the initial stem forms a new syllable with the final consonant of the prefix.
Final Stem Syllables
- Forms: C V w or C V y
- The form changes to C oː if followed by a suffix that starts with a consonant
- If a long vowel occurs the suffixes change from (-we/-wesʔ/aːdew) to (-oː or -o/oːsʔ/-aːdo)
An interesting feature of Tonkawan phonology is that the vowels in even-numbered syllables are reduced. That is, long vowels are shortened, while short vowels disappear. Analyses of this were given by Kisseberth (1970), Phelps (1973, 1975) and Noske (1993).
Morphology
Morphological terms that are important for Tonkawa:- Morpheme - the smallest unit of sound that has meaning
These are distinguished by hyphens. Example: ka-la 'mouth
- Affixation or Affixes - this includes prefixes, suffixes, and infixes
The morphemes in Tonkawa can be divided as follows:
I. Themes
- Free - the stem can stand alone
- Bound - the stem must have a suffix or prefix attached; it cannot stand alone
In Tonkawa the them is composed of morphologic units. The basic unit is the stem. The stem is composed of two elements (the consonant and vowel) and modified by affixes. The theme, or stem, is functional, which means it changes as more affixation is added. This leads to the fusion of the stem and affix where it becomes difficult to isolate the word into its smaller units.
II. Affixes
- Transformative - the affix changes the meaning and/or function of the word
- Verbal - the affix changes a certain aspect of the verb
- Noun and Pronoun - the affix changes a certain aspect of the noun or pronoun
III. Enclitics
Grammar
Unlike English, where the pronouns, nouns, verbs, etc. are individual words, Tonkawa forms these parts of speech in a different manner. In Tonkawa, the most important grammatical function is affixation. This process shows the subjects, objects, and pronouns of words and/or verbs. Within affixations, the suffix has more importance than the prefix.The differenation between subject and object is shown in the word ending, aka the suffix. While the word order tends to be subject, object, verb (SOV), compounding words is very common in Tonkawa. Reduplication is very common in Tonkawa and affects only the verb themes. Usually only one syllable is duplicated, and this duplication symbolizes a repeated action, vigorous action, or a plural subject.
Nouns
Nouns function as free themes, or stems, in Tonkawa. There is a limit of only two or three affixes that can compound with a noun. However, there are cases were a bound theme can occur in noun compounds. This occurs with the suffix -an is added. In English, pronouns and nouns are usually grouped together, but because pronouns in Tonkawa are bound themes, they will be discussed with the verb section.Noun Suffixes
| Case | Indefinite (singular/plural) | Definite (singular/plural) |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative | -la/ -ka | -ʔa:la/ -ʔa:ka |
| Accusative | -lak/ -kak | -ʔa:lak/ -ʔa:kak |
| Genitive | -ʔan | -ʔa:lʔan |
| Dative (Arrival) | -ʔa:yik | |
| Dative (Approach) | -ʔa:wʔan | |
| Instrumental | -es | -a:las/ -ʔa:kay |
| Conjunctive | -ʔen | -ʔa:lʔen |
Verbs
Verbs are bound morphemes that have a limit of only two themes, of which the 2nd theme is the modifying theme. The 2nd theme usually serves an adverbial theme. However if the suffix -ʔe/-wa is added the verb functions as a free theme.Pronouns
Pronouns are only used for emphasis on the subject and are affixated as prefixes. Person and number are usually indicated by the affixation of the verb. Most pronouns are bound themes, especially the demonstrative pronouns.
| Personal Pronoun | Tonkawa Personal Pronoun | English Personal Pronoun |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person singular | sa:- | me |
| 2nd person singular | na:- | you |
| 3rd person singular | ʔa- | him/her |
| 1st person plural | kew-sa:- | we/us |
| 2nd person plural | we-na:- | you pl./them |
Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative adverbs can be formed by adding -ca 'place', -l 'direction', -c 'manner' to the demonstrative pronouns below.
Example: wa: 'that one aforementioned' + ca 'place = 'wa:-ca 'that place aforementioned'
Interrogative pronouns can be formed by adding the prefix he- to the demonstrative pronouns as well, using the same format for the demonstrative adverbs.
Example: he 'interrogative' + te: 'this' + l 'direction' = he-te:-l 'where'
Indefinite pronouns can also be formed with affixation. (Interrogative + ʔax)
Example: hecu: 'what' + ʔax = hecu:-ʔax 'anything, something, anyone, someone'
| Tonkawa Demonstrative | English Demonstrative |
|---|---|
| wa:- | that one aforementioned |
| te:- | this |
| heʔe/ heʔe:/ he: | that |
| we: | that one yonder |
Verb Suffixes
Verb suffixes are important in Tonkaway because they usually indicate the tense, negativity, and manner of the action performed.
| Suffix | Function | Placement |
|---|---|---|
| -ape/-ap | Negation suffix | follows after the theme; except when 2nd person plural object pronoun is present (follows after the 2nd person plural object pronoun) |
| -nesʔe/ -nesʔ | Dual subject suffix | follows the negative (negation) suffix, future tense suffix, and 2nd person plural object pronoun |
| -wesʔe/ -weʔ | Plural subject suffix | same position as the dual subject; occurs in the 1st and 2nd person in all modes |
| -a:tew/ -a:to | Future tense suffix | after the stem/theme (present tense: -ʔe or just -ʔ; past tense: -ʔey or -ʔe:ye) |
| -no/ -n | Continuative suffix | after the stem |
| -we/ -o:/ -o | declarative mode suffix | after the present or past tense |
| -kʷa | Exclamatory suffix | after the 3rd person singular or at the end of the word |
| -w | Imperative mode | only in the singular, dual, or 2nd person plural |
Enclitics
Enclitics are bound morphemes that are suffixed to verbs, nouns, and demonstratives that end with -k. Enclitics often express modal concepts in Tonkawa, which occur in the declarative, interrogative, and quotative/narrative clauses or statements.| Clause | Suffix | Special Circumstances |
|---|---|---|
| Declarative | -aw or -a:we | |
| Interrogative | -ye or -yelkʷa | both take the ʔ suffix unless there is an interrogative pronoun |
| Quotative/ Narrative | -noʔo/ -laknoʔo | only added to verb forms with –k suffix and if the verb is used in telling a mythical story |
Writing system
The orthographyOrthography
The orthography of a language specifies a standardized way of using a specific writing system to write the language. Where more than one writing system is used for a language, for example Kurdish, Uyghur, Serbian or Inuktitut, there can be more than one orthography...
used on the Tonkawa Tribe's website is similar to Americanist phonetic notation
Americanist phonetic notation
Americanist phonetic notation is a system of phonetic notation originally developed by European and American anthropologists and language scientists for the phonetic and phonemic transcription of Native American and European languages...
.
| Alphabet | Pronunciation | Alphabet | Pronunciation |
| c | /ts/ | a | /a/ |
| h | /h/ | a· | /aː/ |
| k | /k/ | e | /e/ |
| kʷ | /kʷ/ | e· | /eː/ |
| l | /l/ | i | /i/ |
| m | /m/ | i· | /iː/ |
| n | /n/ | o | /o/ |
| p | /p/ | o· | /oː/ |
| s | /s/ | u | /u/ |
| t | /t/ | u· | /uː/ |
| w | /w/ | ||
| x | /x/ | ||
| xʷ | /xʷ/ | ||
| y | /j/ | ||
| ' or ? | /ʔ/ |
Long vowels are indicated with a following middle dot < · >. The affricate /ts/ is written as < c >. The glottal stop /ʔ/ is written as either an apostrophe < ' > or with a superscript question mark < ? >. The palatal glide /j/ is written as < y >.
The phonemic orthography used in Hoijer's Tonkawa Texts is a later version of Americanist transcription. It uses a colon for long vowels < : > and the traditional glottal stop symbol < ʔ >.
some of the examples of it would be like salt it is called mummun and peper is mummunchicew
Example
The following text is the first four sentences of Coyote and Jackrabbit, from Hoijer's Tonkawa Texts.Gloss:
- Coyote / he was going along, S / on the prairie. When he did so / Jackrabbit / he was lying, S / (accus.). Coyote / "Oho!" / he said, S. "Horse /my / I have found it!" / he said, S. And then / that Jackrabbit afm / he caught him, S.
In this gloss, S is an abbreviation for "it is said", and afm for "the aforementioned".
External links
- Ethnologue report for Tonkawa
- Tonkawa resources at the Rosetta Project
- The Tonkawa Language – Includes online Tonkawa dictionary