Spiros Markezinis
Encyclopedia
Spyridon Markezinis or Markesinis (April 22, 1909, Athens
– January 4, 2000, Athens) was a Greek
politician, longtime member of the Hellenic Parliament
, and briefly Prime Minister
during the aborted attempt at democratization
of the Greek military regime in 1973.
Island, who were at some time given the title marchesini (i.e. "little Marquess
es") during Venetian
rule. He earned degrees in Law and Political Science
at the University of Athens, and entered private law practice. In 1936, he was appointed counsel to King George II
, a capacity in which he served until 1946. The outbreak of World War II
and Greece's occupation by Nazi Germany
forced the king to flee the country, while Markezinis remained to fight as part of the resistance
militias.
Markezinis was elected in the Parliament (the Vouli) during the 1946
elections as a member of the United Nationalist Party from the Cyclades
. Shortly thereafter, he left the party and founded the New Party, the second of many parties under which he would serve. The New Party won 2.5% of the vote in the 1950 parliamentary elections
, enough to hold Markezinis's single seat in the Vouli.
, but was effectively assigned control over the government's economic policy, coordinating the activities of the various economic ministries. Upon the election of long-time ally Marshal Alexandros Papagos as Prime Minister in 1952, Markezinis's effective position as minister of finance was further strengthened. In April, 1953, Markezinis orchestrated a 50% devaluation of the Drachma vis-à-vis the US dollar, concurrently curbing import restrictions. Markezinis’s effective monetary policies are credited for boosting exports and consumer demand, as well as for curtailing inflation and the balance of trade
deficit. Markezinis was considered at the time as a possible successor in the party leadership and premiership in the event of Marshal Papagos's retirement.
nor Stephanos Stephanopoulos
), but by Konstantinos Karamanlis, a junior minister who was appointed by King Paul
to form a new government. Karamanlis managed to gather the support of nearly all the MPs of Marshal Papagos's party, and eventually formed the conservative National Radical Union
(ERE). In the same year, Markezinis founded the Progressive Party, but failed to win seats in the 1956
elections. Markezinis’s Party eventually won a seat in parliament in the 1958 elections
. In 1961
, he was re-elected in coalition with the Center Union
, as well as in 1964
, in coalition with the National Radical Union. Years of political turmoil ensued, and culminated in a military coup on April 21, 1967, orchestrated by George Papadopoulos
, which resulted in a 7-year military regime.
staged an abortive attempt to overthrow the military regime. Junta
strongman George Papadopoulos retaliated by deposing the already self-exiled King Constantine II
, and appointing himself President of the Republic further to a controversial referendum.
In face of growing difficulties with the economy, popular dissent and increasing diplomatic isolation, the Greek junta was seeking ways for a transition to some form of parliamentary rule. Papadopoulos sought support from the old political establishment, and Markezinis accepted to undertake the mission to help lead the country back to parliamentary rule in a process that was called metapolitefsi
. In September, 1973, he was appointed by Papadopoulos Prime Minister of Greece, with the task to lead Greece to parliamentary rule. He accepted the task, subject to a commitment by Papadopoulos to curtail any military interference. Papadopoulos proceeded to abolish martial law, and eased censorship of the press. Free elections were promised, in which political formations including part of the traditional left-of-center were expected to participate. However, the Greek communist party KKE, banned since the civil war
, and EDA
, the party which mostly fronted for KKE during the years of democratic rule, were not expected to be re-legitimized nor allowed to particpiate. In any case, most leading politicians of the old guard, including Karamanlis, Andreas Papandreou
, Panagiotis Kanellopoulos
and Georgios Mavros, with the exception of former MP and exile Pavlos Vardinogiannis, condemned the attempt at Metapolitefsi
by Papadopoulos and Markezinis, and refused to participate in any contacts with the ruling junta
, insisting on an unconditional and immediate reinstatement of democratic rule.
In November 1973, the Athens Polytechnic uprising
broke out. The student uprising is generally believed to have been spontaneous, started with purely student demands at first, and not orchestrated by any political groups in Greece. (Initially, it was condemned by the parties of the Greek Left, which had been banned by the ruling junta. There were suspicions at the time that the uprising was an act of provocation orchestrated by factions within the military regime opposed to the process of political normalization and would use the uprising to derail it.) The student protests in front of the Polytechnic, within a few days, evolved into a clearly political, quite vocal and rather widespread, albeit peaceful, rebellion against the dictatorship. After approximately three days and nights of continuous mass gatherings in front of the Polytechnic, the protests were put down by force, through the use of tanks and army units which stormed the building during the night of November 17. On November 25, 1973, Taxiarkhos
Dimitrios Ioannides
used the events as a pretext to stage a countercoup that overthrew Papadopoulos, and put a dramatic end to Papadopoulos and Markezinis' attempt for a transition to democratic rule. Ioannidis arrested Markezinis, cancelled the elections, and fully reinstated martial law. His regime in turn crumbled in July 1974, after the coup against Makarios III
, instigated by Cypriot Nikos Sampson
in contact with the Greek junta of Ioannidis, led to the Turkish invasion of Cyprus
.
Markezinis would subsequently point out that his participation in the political normalization attempted by Papadopoulos aimed precisely at avoiding such a "national catastrophe".
. Markezinis's Progressive Party remained an active political party, albeit a small one, whose main success consisted of electing a delegate to the European parliament
in 1981. Markezinis spent his latter years writing his memoirs and on the political history of contemporary Greece.
. Markezinis is, however, almost universally acclaimed for his successful economic reforms in the 1950s, and for his prolific historical publications, which include the multi-volume The Political History of Modern Greece.
Athens
Athens , is the capital and largest city of Greece. Athens dominates the Attica region and is one of the world's oldest cities, as its recorded history spans around 3,400 years. Classical Athens was a powerful city-state...
– January 4, 2000, Athens) was a Greek
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
politician, longtime member of the Hellenic Parliament
Hellenic Parliament
The Hellenic Parliament , also the Parliament of the Hellenes, is the Parliament of Greece, located in the Parliament House , overlooking Syntagma Square in Athens, Greece....
, and briefly Prime Minister
Prime Minister of Greece
The Prime Minister of Greece , officially the Prime Minister of the Hellenic Republic , is the head of government of the Hellenic Republic and the leader of the Greek cabinet. The current interim Prime Minister is Lucas Papademos, a former Vice President of the European Central Bank, following...
during the aborted attempt at democratization
Metapolitefsi
The Metapolitefsi was a period in Greek history after the fall of the Greek military junta of 1967–1974 that includes the transitional period from the fall of the dictatorship to the Greek legislative elections of 1974 and the democratic period immediately after these elections.The long...
of the Greek military regime in 1973.
Early political life
Spyros Markezinis was a scion of an old wealthy family of SantoriniSantorini
Santorini , officially Thira , is an island located in the southern Aegean Sea, about southeast from Greece's mainland. It is the largest island of a small, circular archipelago which bears the same name and is the remnant of a volcanic caldera...
Island, who were at some time given the title marchesini (i.e. "little Marquess
Marquess
A marquess or marquis is a nobleman of hereditary rank in various European peerages and in those of some of their former colonies. The term is also used to translate equivalent oriental styles, as in imperial China, Japan, and Vietnam...
es") during Venetian
Republic of Venice
The Republic of Venice or Venetian Republic was a state originating from the city of Venice in Northeastern Italy. It existed for over a millennium, from the late 7th century until 1797. It was formally known as the Most Serene Republic of Venice and is often referred to as La Serenissima, in...
rule. He earned degrees in Law and Political Science
Political science
Political Science is a social science discipline concerned with the study of the state, government and politics. Aristotle defined it as the study of the state. It deals extensively with the theory and practice of politics, and the analysis of political systems and political behavior...
at the University of Athens, and entered private law practice. In 1936, he was appointed counsel to King George II
George II of Greece
George II reigned as King of Greece from 1922 to 1924 and from 1935 to 1947.-Early life, first period of kingship and exile:George was born at the royal villa at Tatoi, near Athens, the eldest son of King Constantine I of Greece and his wife, Princess Sophia of Prussia...
, a capacity in which he served until 1946. The outbreak of World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
and Greece's occupation by Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany , also known as the Third Reich , but officially called German Reich from 1933 to 1943 and Greater German Reich from 26 June 1943 onward, is the name commonly used to refer to the state of Germany from 1933 to 1945, when it was a totalitarian dictatorship ruled by...
forced the king to flee the country, while Markezinis remained to fight as part of the resistance
Greek Resistance
The Greek Resistance is the blanket term for a number of armed and unarmed groups from across the political spectrum that resisted the Axis Occupation of Greece in the period 1941–1944, during World War II.-Origins:...
militias.
Markezinis was elected in the Parliament (the Vouli) during the 1946
Greek legislative election, 1946
These elections were marked by:* The marked abstention of voters, caused by the abstention of Communist Party of Greece, and the effects of the civil war , because of which many citizens either could not or chose not to vote....
elections as a member of the United Nationalist Party from the Cyclades
Cyclades
The Cyclades is a Greek island group in the Aegean Sea, south-east of the mainland of Greece; and a former administrative prefecture of Greece. They are one of the island groups which constitute the Aegean archipelago. The name refers to the islands around the sacred island of Delos...
. Shortly thereafter, he left the party and founded the New Party, the second of many parties under which he would serve. The New Party won 2.5% of the vote in the 1950 parliamentary elections
Greek legislative election, 1950
The 1950 Greek legislative election was held on 5 March 1950.A total of 44 parties contested 250 seats. rowspan=2 colspan=3 valign=top|Summary of the 5 March 1950 Greek Parliament election results...
, enough to hold Markezinis's single seat in the Vouli.
Economic reform
In 1949, Markezinis was appointed Minister Without PortfolioMinister without Portfolio
A minister without portfolio is either a government minister with no specific responsibilities or a minister that does not head a particular ministry...
, but was effectively assigned control over the government's economic policy, coordinating the activities of the various economic ministries. Upon the election of long-time ally Marshal Alexandros Papagos as Prime Minister in 1952, Markezinis's effective position as minister of finance was further strengthened. In April, 1953, Markezinis orchestrated a 50% devaluation of the Drachma vis-à-vis the US dollar, concurrently curbing import restrictions. Markezinis’s effective monetary policies are credited for boosting exports and consumer demand, as well as for curtailing inflation and the balance of trade
Balance of trade
The balance of trade is the difference between the monetary value of exports and imports of output in an economy over a certain period. It is the relationship between a nation's imports and exports...
deficit. Markezinis was considered at the time as a possible successor in the party leadership and premiership in the event of Marshal Papagos's retirement.
Later parliamentary positions
Papagos died in 1955. He was succeeded by neither Markezinis (whose relations with the Marshal had become tense) nor by other heirs apparent (such as Panagiotis KanellopoulosPanagiotis Kanellopoulos
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos or Panayotis Kanellopoulos was a distinguished Greek politician and Prime Minister of Greece. He was the Prime Minister of Greece deposed by the Greek military junta of 1967-1974....
nor Stephanos Stephanopoulos
Stephanos Stephanopoulos
Stefanos Stefanopoulos was a Greek politician. He was a moderate conservative, and served as a cabinet member during Alexandros Papagos' government...
), but by Konstantinos Karamanlis, a junior minister who was appointed by King Paul
Paul of Greece
Paul reigned as King of Greece from 1947 to 1964.-Family and early life:Paul was born in Athens, the third son of King Constantine I of Greece and his wife, Princess Sophia of Prussia. He was trained as a naval officer....
to form a new government. Karamanlis managed to gather the support of nearly all the MPs of Marshal Papagos's party, and eventually formed the conservative National Radical Union
National Radical Union
The National Radical Union was a Greek political party formed in 1955 by Konstantinos Karamanlis out of the Greek Rally party....
(ERE). In the same year, Markezinis founded the Progressive Party, but failed to win seats in the 1956
Greek legislative election, 1956
The Greek legislative election of the 19 February 1956 resulted in victory for Constantine Karamanlis and his National Radical Union party by securing the electoral vote despite trailing in the popular vote...
elections. Markezinis’s Party eventually won a seat in parliament in the 1958 elections
Greek legislative election, 1958
The Greek legislative election of the 11 May 1958 resulted in the second consecutive victory for Constantine Karamanlis and his National Radical Union party....
. In 1961
Greek legislative election, 1961
The Greek legislative election of the 29 October 1961 resulted in the third in a row victory for Constantine Karamanlis and his National Radical Union party....
, he was re-elected in coalition with the Center Union
Center Union
The Centre Union was a Greek political party, created in 1961 by George Papandreou, senior.The party was elected to power in 1963, with Papandreou as Prime Minister...
, as well as in 1964
Greek legislative election, 1964
The Greek legislative election of the 19 February 1964 resulted in a clear victory for Georgios Papandreou and his Center Union party.Georgios Papandreou had formed an interim government just after the legislative elections of 1963, in order to carry out new elections, because no party had the...
, in coalition with the National Radical Union. Years of political turmoil ensued, and culminated in a military coup on April 21, 1967, orchestrated by George Papadopoulos
George Papadopoulos
Colonel Georgios Papadopoulos was the head of the military coup d'état that took place in Greece on 21 April 1967 and leader of the military government that ruled the country from 1967 to 1974. Papadopoulos was a Colonel of Artillery...
, which resulted in a 7-year military regime.
Premiership under the dictatorship
In 1973, the predominantly royalist Hellenic NavyHellenic Navy
The Hellenic Navy is the naval force of Greece, part of the Greek Armed Forces. The modern Greek navy has its roots in the naval forces of various Aegean Islands, which fought in the Greek War of Independence...
staged an abortive attempt to overthrow the military regime. Junta
Military junta
A junta or military junta is a government led by a committee of military leaders. The term derives from the Spanish language junta meaning committee, specifically a board of directors...
strongman George Papadopoulos retaliated by deposing the already self-exiled King Constantine II
Constantine II of Greece
|align=right|Constantine II was King of Greece from 1964 until the abolition of the monarchy in 1973, the sixth and last monarch of the Greek Royal Family....
, and appointing himself President of the Republic further to a controversial referendum.
In face of growing difficulties with the economy, popular dissent and increasing diplomatic isolation, the Greek junta was seeking ways for a transition to some form of parliamentary rule. Papadopoulos sought support from the old political establishment, and Markezinis accepted to undertake the mission to help lead the country back to parliamentary rule in a process that was called metapolitefsi
Metapolitefsi
The Metapolitefsi was a period in Greek history after the fall of the Greek military junta of 1967–1974 that includes the transitional period from the fall of the dictatorship to the Greek legislative elections of 1974 and the democratic period immediately after these elections.The long...
. In September, 1973, he was appointed by Papadopoulos Prime Minister of Greece, with the task to lead Greece to parliamentary rule. He accepted the task, subject to a commitment by Papadopoulos to curtail any military interference. Papadopoulos proceeded to abolish martial law, and eased censorship of the press. Free elections were promised, in which political formations including part of the traditional left-of-center were expected to participate. However, the Greek communist party KKE, banned since the civil war
Greek Civil War
The Greek Civil War was fought from 1946 to 1949 between the Greek governmental army, backed by the United Kingdom and United States, and the Democratic Army of Greece , the military branch of the Greek Communist Party , backed by Bulgaria, Yugoslavia and Albania...
, and EDA
United Democratic Left
The United Democratic Left was a political party in Greece, active mostly before the Greek military junta of 1967-1974.-Foundation:...
, the party which mostly fronted for KKE during the years of democratic rule, were not expected to be re-legitimized nor allowed to particpiate. In any case, most leading politicians of the old guard, including Karamanlis, Andreas Papandreou
Andreas Papandreou
Andreas G. Papandreou ; 5 February 1919 – 23 June 1996) was a Greek economist, a socialist politician and a dominant figure in Greek politics. The son of Georgios Papandreou, Andreas was a Harvard-trained academic...
, Panagiotis Kanellopoulos
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos or Panayotis Kanellopoulos was a distinguished Greek politician and Prime Minister of Greece. He was the Prime Minister of Greece deposed by the Greek military junta of 1967-1974....
and Georgios Mavros, with the exception of former MP and exile Pavlos Vardinogiannis, condemned the attempt at Metapolitefsi
Metapolitefsi
The Metapolitefsi was a period in Greek history after the fall of the Greek military junta of 1967–1974 that includes the transitional period from the fall of the dictatorship to the Greek legislative elections of 1974 and the democratic period immediately after these elections.The long...
by Papadopoulos and Markezinis, and refused to participate in any contacts with the ruling junta
Military dictatorship
A military dictatorship is a form of government where in the political power resides with the military. It is similar but not identical to a stratocracy, a state ruled directly by the military....
, insisting on an unconditional and immediate reinstatement of democratic rule.
In November 1973, the Athens Polytechnic uprising
Athens Polytechnic uprising
The Athens Polytechnic uprising in 1973 was a massive demonstration of popular rejection of the Greek military junta of 1967-1974. The uprising began on November 14, 1973, escalated to an open anti-junta, anti-US and anti-imperialist revolt and ended in bloodshed in the early morning of November...
broke out. The student uprising is generally believed to have been spontaneous, started with purely student demands at first, and not orchestrated by any political groups in Greece. (Initially, it was condemned by the parties of the Greek Left, which had been banned by the ruling junta. There were suspicions at the time that the uprising was an act of provocation orchestrated by factions within the military regime opposed to the process of political normalization and would use the uprising to derail it.) The student protests in front of the Polytechnic, within a few days, evolved into a clearly political, quite vocal and rather widespread, albeit peaceful, rebellion against the dictatorship. After approximately three days and nights of continuous mass gatherings in front of the Polytechnic, the protests were put down by force, through the use of tanks and army units which stormed the building during the night of November 17. On November 25, 1973, Taxiarkhos
Taxiarkhos
Taxiarch, the anglicized form of taxiarchos or taxiarchēs is used in the Greek language to mean "brigadier". The term derives from táxis, "order", in military context "an ordered formation". In turn, the rank has given rise to the Greek term for brigade, taxiarchia...
Dimitrios Ioannides
Dimitrios Ioannides
Dimitrios Ioannidis , also known as Dimitris Ioannidis, was a Greek military officer and one of the leading figures in the Greek military junta of 1967–1974.He was born in Athens to a wealthy, upper middle-class business family with roots in Epirus....
used the events as a pretext to stage a countercoup that overthrew Papadopoulos, and put a dramatic end to Papadopoulos and Markezinis' attempt for a transition to democratic rule. Ioannidis arrested Markezinis, cancelled the elections, and fully reinstated martial law. His regime in turn crumbled in July 1974, after the coup against Makarios III
Makarios III
Makarios III , born Andreas Christodolou Mouskos , was the archbishop and primate of the autocephalous Cypriot Orthodox Church and the first President of the Republic of Cyprus ....
, instigated by Cypriot Nikos Sampson
Nikos Sampson
Nikos Sampson was the de facto president of Cyprus who succeeded Archbishop Makarios, President of Cyprus, in 1974. Sampson was a journalist and a member of EOKA, which rose against the British colonial administration, seeking Enosis of the island of Cyprus with Greece...
in contact with the Greek junta of Ioannidis, led to the Turkish invasion of Cyprus
Turkish invasion of Cyprus
The Turkish invasion of Cyprus, launched on 20 July 1974, was a Turkish military invasion in response to a Greek military junta backed coup in Cyprus...
.
Markezinis would subsequently point out that his participation in the political normalization attempted by Papadopoulos aimed precisely at avoiding such a "national catastrophe".
The restoration of democracy
Markezinis was involved in the negotiations in July 1974 that led to the return of democratic government under Karamanlis's national unity governmentNational unity government
A national unity government, government of national unity, or national union government is a broad coalition government consisting of all parties in the legislature, usually formed during a time of war or other national emergency.- Canada :During World War I the Conservative government of Sir...
. Markezinis's Progressive Party remained an active political party, albeit a small one, whose main success consisted of electing a delegate to the European parliament
European Parliament
The European Parliament is the directly elected parliamentary institution of the European Union . Together with the Council of the European Union and the Commission, it exercises the legislative function of the EU and it has been described as one of the most powerful legislatures in the world...
in 1981. Markezinis spent his latter years writing his memoirs and on the political history of contemporary Greece.
Legacy
Markezinis’s tenure as Prime Minister of Greece under the Junta remains controversial. Some praise his willingness to undertake the daunting, quixotic, and ultimately unsuccessful task of restoring parliamentary rule in a smooth and bloodless manner in 1973. Others feel that Markezinis lost all credibility as a politician by accepting a political appointment by dictator George PapadopoulosGeorge Papadopoulos
Colonel Georgios Papadopoulos was the head of the military coup d'état that took place in Greece on 21 April 1967 and leader of the military government that ruled the country from 1967 to 1974. Papadopoulos was a Colonel of Artillery...
. Markezinis is, however, almost universally acclaimed for his successful economic reforms in the 1950s, and for his prolific historical publications, which include the multi-volume The Political History of Modern Greece.
See also
- Basil MarkesinisBasil MarkesinisSir Basil Markesinis QC, DCL, FBA is a scholar of law and Jamail Regents Professor at the University of Texas at Austin, and was Professor of Common and Civil Law, University College London.-Early life and education :...