The Southern Manifesto was a document written February–March 1956 by Adisen and Charles in the United States Congress

United States Congress

The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C....

 opposed to racial integration in public places. The manifesto was signed by 101 politicians (99 Democrats and 2 Republicans) from Alabama

Alabama

Alabama is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, and Mississippi to the west. Alabama ranks 30th in total land area and ranks second in the size of its inland...

, Arkansas

Arkansas

Arkansas is a state located in the southern region of the United States. Its name is an Algonquian name of the Quapaw Indians. Arkansas shares borders with six states , and its eastern border is largely defined by the Mississippi River...

, Florida

Florida

Florida is a state in the southeastern United States, located on the nation's Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of 18,801,310 as measured by the 2010 census, it...

, Georgia

Georgia (U.S. state)

Georgia is a state located in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1732, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies. The state is named after King George II of Great Britain. Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2, 1788...

, Louisiana

Louisiana

Louisiana is a state located in the southern region of the United States of America. Its capital is Baton Rouge and largest city is New Orleans. Louisiana is the only state in the U.S. with political subdivisions termed parishes, which are local governments equivalent to counties...

, Mississippi

Mississippi

Mississippi is a U.S. state located in the Southern United States. Jackson is the state capital and largest city. The name of the state derives from the Mississippi River, which flows along its western boundary, whose name comes from the Ojibwe word misi-ziibi...

, North Carolina

North Carolina

North Carolina is a state located in the southeastern United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west and Virginia to the north. North Carolina contains 100 counties. Its capital is Raleigh, and its largest city is Charlotte...

, South Carolina

South Carolina

South Carolina is a state in the Deep South of the United States that borders Georgia to the south, North Carolina to the north, and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. Originally part of the Province of Carolina, the Province of South Carolina was one of the 13 colonies that declared independence...

, Tennessee

Tennessee

Tennessee is a U.S. state located in the Southeastern United States. It has a population of 6,346,105, making it the nation's 17th-largest state by population, and covers , making it the 36th-largest by total land area...

, Texas

Texas

Texas is the second largest U.S. state by both area and population, and the largest state by area in the contiguous United States.The name, based on the Caddo word "Tejas" meaning "friends" or "allies", was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves and to the region of their settlement in...

, and Virginia

Virginia

The Commonwealth of Virginia , is a U.S. state on the Atlantic Coast of the Southern United States. Virginia is nicknamed the "Old Dominion" and sometimes the "Mother of Presidents" after the eight U.S. presidents born there...

. The document was largely drawn up to counter the landmark Supreme Court 1954 ruling Brown v. Board of Education

Brown v. Board of Education

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 , was a landmark decision of the United States Supreme Court that declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students unconstitutional. The decision overturned the Plessy v. Ferguson decision of 1896 which...

.

The initial version was written by Strom Thurmond

Strom Thurmond

James Strom Thurmond was an American politician who served as a United States Senator. He also ran for the Presidency of the United States in 1948 as the segregationist States Rights Democratic Party candidate, receiving 2.4% of the popular vote and 39 electoral votes...

 and the final version mainly by Richard Russell

Richard Russell, Jr.

Richard Brevard Russell, Jr. was a Democratic Party politician from the southeastern state of Georgia. He served as state governor from 1931 to 1933 and United States senator from 1933 to 1971....

. The manifesto was signed by 19 Senators and 82 members of the House of Representatives

United States House of Representatives

The United States House of Representatives is one of the two Houses of the United States Congress, the bicameral legislature which also includes the Senate.The composition and powers of the House are established in Article One of the Constitution...

, including the entire congressional delegations of the states of Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina and Virginia. All of the signatures were Southern Democrats

Southern Democrats

Southern Democrats are members of the U.S. Democratic Party who reside in the American South. In the 19th century, they were the definitive pro-slavery wing of the party, opposed to both the anti-slavery Republicans and the more liberal Northern Democrats.Eventually "Redemption" was finalized in...

 except two: Republicans Joel Broyhill

Joel Broyhill

Joel Thomas Broyhill was an American politician and a Congressman from Virginia for 11 terms, from 1953 to 1974...

 and Richard Poff

Richard Harding Poff

Richard Harding Poff was an American politician and judge. He was first elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1952, representing Virginia's Sixth District...

 of Virginia. School segregation laws were some of the most enduring and best-known of the Jim Crow laws that characterized the American South and several northern states at the time.

The Southern Manifesto accused the Supreme Court of "clear abuse of judicial power." It further promised to use "all lawful means to bring about a reversal of this decision which is contrary to the Constitution and to prevent the use of force in its implementation." One of the theories used was that the Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

The Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which is part of the Bill of Rights, was ratified on December 15, 1791...

 should also limit the reach of the Supreme Court.

Key quotes

• "The unwarranted decision of the Supreme Court in the public school cases is now bearing the fruit always produced when men substitute naked power for established law."

• "The original Constitution does not mention education. Neither does the 14th Amendment nor any other amendment. The debates preceding the submission of the 14th Amendment clearly show that there was no intent that it should affect the system of education maintained by the States."

• "This unwarranted exercise of power by the Court, contrary to the Constitution, is creating chaos and confusion in the States principally affected. It is destroying the amicable relations between the white and Negro races that have been created through 90 years of patient effort by the good people of both races. It has planted hatred and suspicion where there has been heretofore friendship and understanding."

Signatories and non-signatories

In many southern States, signing was much more common than not signing. Those from southern States who refused to sign are noted below. Refusal to sign occurred most prominently among the Texan and Tennessee delegations, where the majority of members of the United States House of Representatives

United States House of Representatives

The United States House of Representatives is one of the two Houses of the United States Congress, the bicameral legislature which also includes the Senate.The composition and powers of the House are established in Article One of the Constitution...

 refused to sign.

United States Senate

United States Senate

The United States Senate is the upper house of the bicameral legislature of the United States, and together with the United States House of Representatives comprises the United States Congress. The composition and powers of the Senate are established in Article One of the U.S. Constitution. Each...

 (in state order)

Signatories:

• John Sparkman
  John Sparkman
  John Jackson Sparkman was an American politician from the state of Alabama. A conservative Southern Democrat, Sparkman served in the U.S. House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate from 1937 until 1979. He was the Democratic Party's nominee for Vice President as Adlai Stevenson's running mate in...
  
   (D-Alabama)
• Lister Hill (D-Alabama)
• William Fulbright (D-Arkansas)
• John L. McClellan (D-Arkansas)
• George A. Smathers (D-Florida)
• Spessard Holland
  Spessard Holland
  Spessard Lindsey Holland was an American lawyer, politician and elected officeholder. He was the 28th Governor of Florida from 1941 until 1945, during World War II. After finishing his term as governor, he was a United States Senator from Florida from 1946 until 1971...
  
   (D-Florida)
• Walter F. George
  Walter F. George
  Walter Franklin George was an American politician from the state of Georgia. He was a long-time United States Senator and was President pro tempore. He was a Democrat.-Early years:...
  
   (D-Georgia)
• Richard B. Russell
  Richard Russell, Jr.
  Richard Brevard Russell, Jr. was a Democratic Party politician from the southeastern state of Georgia. He served as state governor from 1931 to 1933 and United States senator from 1933 to 1971....
  
   (D-Georgia)
• Allen J. Ellender
  Allen J. Ellender
  Allen Joseph Ellender was a popular U.S. senator from Houma, Louisiana , who served from 1937 until his death. He was a Democrat who was originally allied with the legendary Huey Pierce Long, Jr.. As Senator he compiled a generally conservative record, voting 77% of the time with the Conservative...
  
   (D-Louisiana)
• Russell B. Long
  Russell B. Long
  Russell Billiu Long was an American Democratic politician and United States Senator from Louisiana from 1948 until 1987.-Early life:...
  
    (D-Louisiana)
• James O. Eastland (D-Mississippi)
• John Stennis (D-Mississippi)
• Samuel Ervin (D-North Carolina)
• W. Kerr Scott
  W. Kerr Scott
  William Kerr Scott was a Democratic Party politician from North Carolina. He was the 62nd Governor of North Carolina from 1949 until 1953 and a United States Senator from 1954 until 1958.-Biography:...
  
   (D-North Carolina)
• Strom Thurmond
  Strom Thurmond
  James Strom Thurmond was an American politician who served as a United States Senator. He also ran for the Presidency of the United States in 1948 as the segregationist States Rights Democratic Party candidate, receiving 2.4% of the popular vote and 39 electoral votes...
  
   (D-South Carolina)
• Olin D. Johnston
  Olin D. Johnston
  Olin DeWitt Talmadge Johnston was a Democratic Party politician from the US state of South Carolina. He served as the 98th Governor of South Carolina, 1935–1939 and 1943–1945, and represented the state in the United States Senate from 1945 until his death in 1965.-Early Life, Military Involvement,...
  
   (D-South Carolina)
• Price Daniel
  Price Daniel
  Marion Price Daniel, Sr. , was a Democratic U.S. Senator and the 38th Governor of the state of Texas. He was appointed by President Lyndon B. Johnson to be a member of the National Security Council, Director of the Office of Emergency Preparedness, and Assistant to the President for Federal-State...
  
   (D-Texas)
• Harry F. Byrd
  Harry F. Byrd
  Harry Flood Byrd, Sr. of Berryville in Clarke County, Virginia, was an American newspaper publisher, farmer and politician. He was a descendant of one of the First Families of Virginia...
  
   (D-Virginia)
• A. Willis Robertson (D-Virginia)

Non-Signatories:

• Albert Gore, Sr.
  Albert Gore, Sr.
  Albert Arnold "Al" Gore, Sr. was an American politician, serving as a U.S. Representative and a U.S. Senator for the Democratic Party from Tennessee....
  
   (D-Tennessee)
• Estes Kefauver
  Estes Kefauver
  Carey Estes Kefauver July 26, 1903 – August 10, 1963) was an American politician from Tennessee. A member of the Democratic Party, he served in the U.S...
  
   (D-Tennessee)
• Lyndon B. Johnson
  Lyndon B. Johnson
  Lyndon Baines Johnson , often referred to as LBJ, was the 36th President of the United States after his service as the 37th Vice President of the United States...
  
   (D-Texas)

United States House of Representatives

United States House of Representatives

The United States House of Representatives is one of the two Houses of the United States Congress, the bicameral legislature which also includes the Senate.The composition and powers of the House are established in Article One of the Constitution...

  (in state order)

Alabama

Alabama

Alabama is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, and Mississippi to the west. Alabama ranks 30th in total land area and ranks second in the size of its inland...

:

• George W. Andrews
  George W. Andrews
  For the Canadian politician see George William Andrews George William Andrews was a U.S...
  
   (D)
• Frank W. Boykin
  Frank W. Boykin
  Frank William Boykin, Sr. served as a Democratic Congressman in Alabama's 1st congressional district from 1935-1963....
  
   (D)
• Carl Elliott
  Carl Elliott
  Carl Atwood Elliott was a U.S. Congressman from the state of Alabama. He was elected to eight consecutive terms in office, serving from January 1949 to January 1965....
  
   (D)
• George M. Grant
  George M. Grant
  George McInvale Grant was a Democratic U.S. Representative from Alabama.Grant was born in Louisville, Alabama. He obtained a law degree from University of Alabama in 1922...
  
   (D)
• George Huddleston, Jr.
  George Huddleston, Jr.
  George Huddleston, Jr. was a Democratic Congressman from Alabama.Huddleston was born in Birmingham, Alabama. He is the son of George Huddleston, who represented the Birmingham area in Congress from 1915 to 1937...
  
   (D)
• Robert E. Jones, Jr.
  Robert E. Jones, Jr.
  Robert E. Jones, Jr. was a member of the United States House of Representatives from the 8th district of Alabama. He was the last to represent that district before it was removed as a result of the 1970 United States Census. Presently there are seven U.S. House districts in Alabama.-Early...
  
   (D)
• Albert Rains
  Albert Rains
  Albert McKinley Rains was a U.S. Representative from Alabama.Born in Grove Oak, Alabama, Rains attended the public schools, Snead Seminary, Boaz, Alabama, State Teachers College , Jacksonville, Alabama, and the University of Alabama at Tuscaloosa.He studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1928 and...
  
   (D)
• Kenneth A. Roberts
  Kenneth A. Roberts
  Kenneth Allison Roberts was a U.S. Representative from Alabama.Born in Piedmont, Alabama, Roberts attended the public schools and Howard College, Birmingham, Alabama. He was graduated from the University of Alabama Law School in 1935 and admitted to the bar in 1936...
  
   (D)
• Armistead Selden (D)

Arkansas

Arkansas

Arkansas is a state located in the southern region of the United States. Its name is an Algonquian name of the Quapaw Indians. Arkansas shares borders with six states , and its eastern border is largely defined by the Mississippi River...

:

• Ezekiel C. Gathings
  Ezekiel C. Gathings
  Ezekiel Candler Gathings was a U.S. Representative from Arkansas.Born in Prairie, Mississippi, Gathings attended the public schools and the University of Alabama at Tuscaloosa. He was graduated from the law department of the University of Arkansas at Fayetteville in 1929...
  
   (D)
• Oren Harris
  Oren Harris
  Oren Harris was a U.S. Representative and United States District Court Judge from Arkansas.-Background:Born in Belton, Arkansas, Harris attended public schools in Prescott, Arkansas....
  
   (D)
• Brooks Hays
  Brooks Hays
  Lawrence Brooks Hays was a Democratic member of the United States House of Representatives from the State of Arkansas....
  
   (D)
• Wilbur D. Mills (D)
• William F. Norrell
  William F. Norrell
  William Frank Norrell was a U.S. Representative from Arkansas, husband of Catherine Dorris Norrell.Born in Milo, Arkansas, Norrell attended the public schools, the Arkansas Agricultural and Mechanical College of Monticello, the College of the Ozarks in Clarksville, Arkansas, and law school at the...
  
   (D)
• James William Trimble
  James William Trimble
  James William Trimble was a Democratic member of the United States House of Representatives from Arkansas, having served from 1945-1967. He was the first Democrat in Arkansas since Reconstruction to lose a congressional race to a Republican...
  
   (D)

Florida

Florida

Florida is a state in the southeastern United States, located on the nation's Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of 18,801,310 as measured by the 2010 census, it...

:

• Charles Edward Bennett
  Charles Edward Bennett
  Charles Edward Bennett was a member of the United States House of Representatives from Florida from 1949 to 1993. He was a Democrat who resided in Jacksonville, Florida.-Early years:...
  
   (D)
• James A. Haley
  James A. Haley
  James Andrew Haley was a U.S. Representative from Florida.Born in Jacksonville, Alabama, Haley attended the public schools and the University of Alabama. During World War I, Haley enlisted in Troop A, Second Cavalry, in April 1917 and served overseas. He was an accountant in Sarasota, Florida from...
  
   (D)
• Albert Herlong, Jr. (D)
• D.R. "Billy" Matthews (D)
• Paul G. Rogers (D)
• Robert L. F. Sikes
  Robert L. F. Sikes
  Robert Lee Fulton Sikes was a U.S. Representative from Florida.Born in Isabella, near Sylvester, Georgia, Sikes attended the public schools....
  
   (D)

Non-Signatories:

• Dante Fascell
  Dante Fascell
  Dante Bruno Fascell served as an American politician from the state of Florida.-Early life:Fascell, born in Bridgehampton, New York in 1917, moved to Florida in 1925. He graduated from the University of Miami law school in 1938. Fascell was a brother of Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia Fraternity and the...
  
   (D)
• William C. Cramer
  William C. Cramer
  William Cato Cramer was a U.S. Representative from Florida.Cramer was born in Denver, Colorado. He was three years old when his parents moved to St. Petersburg, Florida. He attended the public schools and St...
  
   (R)

Georgia

Georgia (U.S. state)

Georgia is a state located in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1732, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies. The state is named after King George II of Great Britain. Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2, 1788...

:

• Iris F. Blitch (D)
• Paul Brown
  Paul Brown
  Paul Eugene Brown was a coach in American football and a major figure in the development of the National Football League...
  
   (D)
• James C. Davis
  James C. Davis
  James Curran Davis was a politician from the state of Georgia.Davis was born in Franklin, Georgia. He attended Reinhardt College in Waleska, Georgia and Emory College in Oxford, Georgia. During World War I, Davis served in the United States Marine Corps...
  
   (D)
• John James Flynt, Jr.
  John James Flynt, Jr.
  John James Flynt, Jr. was a United States Representative from Georgia.Born in Griffin, Georgia, Flynt attended the public schools and Georgia Military Academy . He later attended the University of Georgia at Athens where he was a member of the Phi Kappa Literary Society and received an A.B. in 1936...
  
   (D)
• Tic Forrester
  Tic Forrester
  Elijah Lewis Forrester was a U.S. Representative from Georgia.Born on a farm near Leesburg, Georgia, Forrester attended the Leesburg public schools.He studied law and passed the State bar examination in 1917....
  
   (D)
• Phil M. Landrum (D)
• Henderson Lanham (D)
• J. L. Pilcher
  J. L. Pilcher
  John Leonard Pilcher was a U.S. Representative from Georgia.Born on a farm near Meigs, Georgia, Pilcher attended public schools in the area....
  
   (D)
• Prince H. Preston (D)
• Carl Vinson
  Carl Vinson
  Carl Vinson was a United States Representative from Georgia. He was a Democrat and the first person to serve for more than 50 years in the United States House of Representatives...
  
   (D)

Louisiana

Louisiana

Louisiana is a state located in the southern region of the United States of America. Its capital is Baton Rouge and largest city is New Orleans. Louisiana is the only state in the U.S. with political subdivisions termed parishes, which are local governments equivalent to counties...

:

• Hale Boggs
  Hale Boggs
  Thomas Hale Boggs Sr. , was an American Democratic politician and a member of the U.S. House of Representatives from New Orleans, Louisiana...
  
   (D)
• Overton Brooks
  Overton Brooks
  Thomas Overton Brooks was a Democratic U.S. representative from the Shreveport-based Fourth Congressional District of northwest Louisiana, having served for a quarter century beginning on January 3, 1937. Brooks was a nephew of U.S. Senator John Holmes Overton as well as a great-grandson of Walter...
  
   (D)
• F. Edward Hebert (D)
• George S. Long
  George S. Long
  George Shannon "Doc" Long was a member of the powerful Long political dynasty in Louisiana and a Democratic U.S. representative from the defunct Eighth Congressional District from 1953-1958. The late Speedy O. Long of La Salle Parish, another member of the family, once jokingly compared George...
  
   (D)
• James H. Morrison
  James H. Morrison
  James Hobson "Jimmy" Morrison, Sr. , was a Democratic member of the United States House of Representatives from the Sixth Congressional District of Louisiana, who served from 1943 to 1967...
  
   (D)
• Otto E. Passman (D)
• T. Ashton Thompson
  T. Ashton Thompson
  Theo Ashton Thompson was a U.S. Representative from Louisiana.Born in Ville Platte in Evangeline Parish in south Louisiana, Thompson attended public schools and the Louisiana State University from 1932 to 1934, completing a course in higher accounting.Thompson was the traveling auditor for State...
  
   (D)
• Edwin E. Willis
  Edwin E. Willis
  Edwin Edward Willis was an American politician and attorney from the U.S. state of Louisiana who was affiliated with the Long political faction. A Democrat, he served in the Louisiana State Senate during 1948 and in the United States House of Representatives from 1949 to 1969.-Early life:Willis...
  
   (D)

Mississippi

Mississippi

Mississippi is a U.S. state located in the Southern United States. Jackson is the state capital and largest city. The name of the state derives from the Mississippi River, which flows along its western boundary, whose name comes from the Ojibwe word misi-ziibi...

:

• Thomas G. Abernethy (D)
• William M. Colmer
  William M. Colmer
  William Meyers Colmer was a Mississippi politician.Colmer was born in Moss Point, Mississippi, and attended Millsaps College...
  
   (D)
• Frank E. Smith
  Frank E. Smith
  Frank Ellis Smith was a U.S. Representative from Mississippi.Born in Sidon, Mississippi, Smith attended the public schools of Sidon and Greenwood, Mississippi....
  
   (D)
• Jamie L. Whitten
  Jamie L. Whitten
  Jamie Lloyd Whitten was a United States Representative from Mississippi, who was of English and Swedish descent. He is the second-longest serving U.S. Representative ever and the fourth longest serving U.S. member of Congress ever.-Early life:Jamie Whitten was born in Cascilla, Mississippi...
  
   (D)
• John Bell Williams
  John Bell Williams
  John Bell Williams was an American Democratic politician who was governor of Mississippi from 1968 to 1972.-Biography:...
  
   (D)
• Arthur Winstead (D)

North Carolina

North Carolina

North Carolina is a state located in the southeastern United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west and Virginia to the north. North Carolina contains 100 counties. Its capital is Raleigh, and its largest city is Charlotte...

:

• Hugh Q. Alexander (D)
• Graham A. Barden (D)
• Herbert C. Bonner (D)
• Frank Carlyle (D)
• Carl Durham (D)
• Lawrence Fountain (D)
• Woodrow W. Jones
  Woodrow W. Jones
  Woodrow Wilson Jones was a United States Representative and a federal judge from North Carolina. He was born in Green Hill Township, Rutherford County, North Carolina and attended the public schools of Rutherford County...
  
   (D)
• George A. Shuford
  George A. Shuford
  George Adams Shuford was a U.S. Representative from North Carolina.Born in Asheville, North Carolina, Shuford attended the public schools and the University of North Carolina 1913-1915....
  
   (D)

Non-Signatories:

• Richard Chatham (D)
• Harold D. Cooley
  Harold D. Cooley
  Harold Dunbar Cooley was an American politician of the Democratic Party. He represented the Fourth Congressional district of North Carolina from 1934 - 1967...
  
   (D)
• Charles Deane
  Charles B. Deane
  Charles Bennett Deane was a member of the United States House of Representatives from North Carolina.-Career:Deane was born in Ansonville Township, Anson County, North Carolina on 1 November 1898. He attended Pee Dee Academy in Rockingham, North Carolina, and Trinity Park School, Durham, N.C.,...
  
   (D)
• Charles R. Jonas
  Charles R. Jonas
  Charles Raper Jonas was a U.S. representative from North Carolina for ten terms . At the time of his election in 1952, he became the first Republican to represent his state in either house of the U.S. Congress since his own father, Charles A. Jonas, and George M...
  
   (R)

South Carolina

South Carolina

South Carolina is a state in the Deep South of the United States that borders Georgia to the south, North Carolina to the north, and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. Originally part of the Province of Carolina, the Province of South Carolina was one of the 13 colonies that declared independence...

:

• Robert T. Ashmore
  Robert T. Ashmore
  Robert Thomas Ashmore was a U.S. Representative from South Carolina, cousin of John D. Ashmore.Born on a farm near Greenville, South Carolina, Ashmore attended the public schools of Greenville. He graduated from Furman University Law School, Greenville, South Carolina, in 1927...
  
   (D)
• W.J. Bryan Dorn (D)
• John L. McMillan
  John L. McMillan
  John Lanneau McMillan was a United States Representative from South Carolina. Born on a farm near Mullins, he was educated at Mullins High School, the University of North Carolina, as well as the University of South Carolina Law School and National Law School in Washington, D.C...
  
   (D)
• James P. Richards
  James P. Richards
  James Prioleau "Dick" Richards was a lawyer, judge, and Democrat U.S. Representative from South Carolina between 1933 and 1957. He later served as a special ambassador under Republican President Eisenhower....
  
   (D)
• John J. Riley
  John J. Riley
  John Jacob Riley was a U.S. Representative from South Carolina, husband of Corinne Boyd Riley.Born on a farm near Orangeburg, South Carolina, Riley attended the public schools in Orangeburg County....
  
   (D)
• L. Mendel Rivers
  L. Mendel Rivers
  Lucius Mendel Rivers was a Democratic U.S. Representative from South Carolina, representing the Charleston based 1st congressional district for nearly thirty years...
  
   (D)

Tennessee

Tennessee

Tennessee is a U.S. state located in the Southeastern United States. It has a population of 6,346,105, making it the nation's 17th-largest state by population, and covers , making it the 36th-largest by total land area...

:

• Jere Cooper
  Jere Cooper
  Jere Cooper was a Democratic United States Representative from Tennessee.-Biography:Cooper was born on a farm near Dyersburg, Dyer County, Tennessee...
  
   (D)
• Clifford Davis
  Clifford Davis
  Clifford Davis was a Democratic U.S. Representative from Tennessee from 1940 to 1965.-Early life:Davis was born in Hazlehurst, Mississippi, moving to Memphis with his parents at age 14. There he completed the high school curriculum of the public schools, and in 1917 he completed law school at the...
  
   (D)
• James B. Frazier, Jr.
  James B. Frazier, Jr.
  James Beriah Frazier, Jr. was a U.S. Democratic politician.-Biography:He was born in Chattanooga, Tennessee. His father was James B. Frazier, who served as Governor of Tennessee from 1903 to 1905 and as a United States Senator from Tennessee from 1905 to 1911...
  
   (D)
• Tom J. Murray
  Tom J. Murray
  Thomas Jefferson Murray , usually known as Tom J. Murray, was a Democratic U.S. Representative from Tennessee from 1943 to 1966.-Early life:...
  
   (D)

Non-Signatories:

• Howard Baker, Sr.
  Howard Baker, Sr.
  Howard Henry Baker, Sr. was a United States Representative from Tennessee. He was a member of the Republican Party.-Biography:Baker was born in Somerset, Kentucky in 1902 to James F...
  
   (R)
• Ross Bass
  Ross Bass
  Ross Bass was an American florist, postmaster, Congressman, and United States Senator from Tennessee.- Background :...
  
   (D)
• Joe Evins
  Joe L. Evins
  Joseph Landon Evins was a Democratic U.S. Representative from Tennessee from 1947 to 1977.Evins was a native of the Blend Community of DeKalb County, Tennessee, the son of James Edgar Evins and Myrtie Goodson Evins. His father was a Tennessee state senator and a successful local businessman.Joe L...
  
   (D)
• Percy Priest
  Percy Priest
  James Percy Priest was an American teacher, journalist and politician who represented Tennessee in the United States House of Representatives from 1941 until his death.- Background :Priest was born in Maury County, Tennessee...
  
   (D)
• B. Carroll Reece
  B. Carroll Reece
  Brazilla Carroll Reece was a U.S. Representative from Tennessee.-Early life and career:Reece was born on a farm near Butler, Tennessee, one of thirteen children of John Isaac and Sarah Maples Reece...
  
   (R)

Texas

Texas

Texas is the second largest U.S. state by both area and population, and the largest state by area in the contiguous United States.The name, based on the Caddo word "Tejas" meaning "friends" or "allies", was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves and to the region of their settlement in...

:

• Wright Patman
  Wright Patman
  John William Wright Patman was a U.S. Congressman from Texas in Texas's 1st congressional district and chair of the United States House Committee on Banking and Currency .-Early life:...
  
   (D)
• John Dowdy
  John Dowdy
  John Vernard Dowdy was an American politician. Dowdy was a Democratic member of the House of Representatives from the 7th District of Texas from 1953 to 1967 and then served as a congressman from the 2nd District of Texas until 1973, when he decided to retire under indictment for bribery.According...
  
    (D)
• Walter Rogers (D)
• O. C. Fisher
  O. C. Fisher
  Ovie Clark Fisher was an attorney and author who served his country for 32 years as United States Congressman from the 21st District of Texas.-Biography:...
  
   (D)
• Martin Dies, Jr.
  Martin Dies, Jr.
  Martin Dies, Jr. was a Texas politician and a Democratic member of the United States House of Representatives. His father, Martin Dies, was also a member of the United States House of Representatives.-Biography:...
  
   (D)

Non-Signatories:

• Jack Brooks
  Jack Brooks (politician)
  Jack Bascom Brooks is a retired Democratic politician from the U.S. state of Texas, who served for more than 40 years in the U.S. House of Representatives. He was defeated for reelection in the 1994 election...
  
   (D)
• Brady Gentry (D)
• Sam Rayburn
  Sam Rayburn
  Samuel Taliaferro Rayburn , often called "Mr. Sam," or "Mr. Democrat," was a Democratic lawmaker from Bonham, Texas, who served as the Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives for seventeen years, the longest tenure in U.S. history.- Background :Rayburn was born in Roane County, Tennessee, and...
  
   (D)
• Bruce Alger
  Bruce Alger
  Bruce Reynolds Alger is an American politician and a former Republican U.S. representative from Texas, the first to have represented a Dallas district since Reconstruction. He served from 1955 until 1965. He was born in Dallas but was reared in Webster Groves, Missouri, a small suburb of St...
  
   (R)
• Olin E. Teague
  Olin E. Teague
  Olin Earl "Tiger" Teague was a notable World War II veteran and Congressional representative for Texas's 6th congressional district for 32 years, from 1946 to 1978...
  
   (D)
• Albert Thomas
  Albert Richard Thomas
  This article is about the US Congressman. For the article on the French Socialist and First Director of the International Labour Organisation see Albert Thomas ....
  
   (D)
• Clark W. Thompson
  Clark W. Thompson
  Clark Wallace Thompson was born in La Crosse, Wisconsin on August 6, 1896 and moved to Oregon in 1901 with his parents, who settled in Cascade Locks. Thompson attended the common schools and the University of Oregon at Eugene. He enlisted in the United States Marine Corps during the First World...
  
   (D)
• Homer Thornberry
  Homer Thornberry
  William Homer Thornberry was a United States Representative from the 10th congressional district of Texas from 1948 to 1963, and then was a federal judge.-Biography:...
  
   (D)
• William Poage (D)
• Jim Wright
  Jim Wright
  James Claude Wright, Jr. , usually known as Jim Wright, is a former Democratic U.S. Congressman from Texas who served 34 years in the U.S. House of Representatives and was the Speaker of the House from 1987 to 1989.-Early life:...
  
   (D)
• Frank Ikard (D)
• John J. Bell
  John J. Bell
  John Junior Bell was a U.S. Representative from Texas.Born in Cuero, Texas, Bell attended the public schools.He graduated from the University of Texas at Austin in 1932 and from its law school in 1936....
  
   (D)
• Joe Madison Kilgore (D)
• J. T. Rutherford (D)
• Omar Burleson
  Omar Burleson
  Omar Truman Burleson was a U.S. Representative from Texas.Born in Anson, the seat of Jones County, north of Abilene, Texas, Burleson attended the public schools and Abilene Christian College and Hardin-Simmons University, both in Abilene.Burleson graduated in 1929 from Cumberland University in...
  
   (D)
• George H. Mahon
  George H. Mahon
  George Herman Mahon was a Texas politician who served twenty-two consecutive terms as a member of the United States House of Representatives from the Lubbock-based 19th congressional district....
  
   (D)
• Paul Kilday (D)

Virginia

Virginia

The Commonwealth of Virginia , is a U.S. state on the Atlantic Coast of the Southern United States. Virginia is nicknamed the "Old Dominion" and sometimes the "Mother of Presidents" after the eight U.S. presidents born there...

:

• Edward J. Robeson, Jr.
  Edward J. Robeson, Jr.
  Edward John Robeson, Jr. was a U.S. Representative from Virginia.Born in Waynesville, North Carolina, Robeson moved from Wythe County, Virginia, with his parents to Cartersville, Georgia, in 1891....
  
   (D)
• Porter Hardy (D)
• J. Vaughan Gary
  J. Vaughan Gary
  Julian Vaughan Gary was a U.S. Representative from Virginia.-Biography:Born in Richmond, Virginia, Gary was a graduate of the University of Richmond . He was admitted to the bar in 1915 and commenced practice in Richmond, Virginia...
  
   (D)
• Watkins M. Abbitt (D)
• William M. Tuck
  William M. Tuck
  William Munford Tuck served as the 55th Governor of Virginia from 1946 to 1950 as a Democrat.He was the youngest son of Halifax County, Virginia tobacco warehouseman Robert James Tuck and Virginia Susan Fritts. Tuck graduated from the College of William and Mary, earning a teacher's certificate....
  
   (D)
• Richard Harding Poff
  Richard Harding Poff
  Richard Harding Poff was an American politician and judge. He was first elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1952, representing Virginia's Sixth District...
  
   (R)
• Burr Harrison
  Burr Harrison
  Burr Powell Harrison was a U.S. Representative from Virginia, son of Thomas W. Harrison.Born in Winchester, Virginia, Harrison attended the public schools, Woodberry Forest School, Virginia Military Institute, Hampden-Sydney College, and the University of Virginia.He was graduated from Georgetown...
  
   (D)
• Howard W. Smith
  Howard W. Smith
  Howard Worth Smith , Democratic U.S. Representative from Virginia, was a leader of the conservative coalition who supported both racial segregation and women's rights.-Early life and education:...
  
   (D)
• William Pat Jennings
  William Pat Jennings
  William Pat Jennings was a United States Representative from Virginia. He was born on a farm in Camp in Smyth County, Virginia. He earned a B.S. degree from the Virginia Polytechnic Institute in Blacksburg, 1941. He entered the United States Army in July 1941 during World War II...
  
   (D)
• Joel T. Broyhill (R)

See also

• American Civil Rights Movement
• Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
  Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
  The Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was adopted on July 9, 1868, as one of the Reconstruction Amendments.Its Citizenship Clause provides a broad definition of citizenship that overruled the Dred Scott v...
  
  
• Brown v. Board of Education
  Brown v. Board of Education
  Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 , was a landmark decision of the United States Supreme Court that declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students unconstitutional. The decision overturned the Plessy v. Ferguson decision of 1896 which...
  
  
• 1957 Georgia Memorial to Congress
  1957 Georgia Memorial to Congress
  The 1957 Georgia Memorial to Congress is a joint resolution by the legislature of the state of Georgia, and approved by the Governor on March 8, 1957, urging the Congress of the United States to declare the 14th and 15th Amendments null and void because of purported violations of the Constitution...
  
  

External links

• Manifesto text and signers from the Congressional Record