Social Foundations of Thought and Action
Encyclopedia
Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory is a landmark work in psychology
published in 1986 by Albert Bandura
. The book expands Bandura's initial social learning theory
into a comprehensive theory of human motivation and action, analyzing the role of cognitive, vicarious, self-regulatory, and self-reflective processes in psychosocial functioning. Bandura first advanced his thesis of reciprocal determinism
in Social Foundations of Thought and Action.
The book was originally published in the US
in 1986. Translations have been published in Chinese, Russian, and Spanish.
The book has been reviewed and discussed in several professional social science journals,
and widely cited in the professional literatures of psychology
, sociology
, and other fields.
It also contains a preface, author and subject indices, and a 60-page reference section. The preface explained that
Contemporary Psychology
,
the Academy of Management Review
, and
Contemporary Sociology
.
It was also the focus of a special section in the inaugural issue of Psychological Inquiry
.
In Contemporary Psychology
, Robert A. Baron
wrote that in his view, the book "is a work of great significance to the field" and has a "high (sometimes dazzling) level of sophistication [that] is apparent not only in the theoretical perspective but also in the extremely broad scope of the volume." The book
In the Academy of Management Review
, Edwin A. Locke
wrote that
In a special section in the 1990 inaugural issue of Psychological Inquiry
, John F. Kihlstrom and Judith M. Harackiewicz wrote that
Also in that special section, Richard M. Lerner
, a developmental psychologist
, began by quoting several key ideas from Bandura's book, and wrote that "the set of ideas quoted at the outset of this article would not be seen as especially new to contemporary developmental psychologists." However, he went on to state that
In a third commentary in that special section, Donald H. Meichenbaum wrote that he "concur[red] totally" with Baron's
assessment of Bandura's book as "a sophisticated, eloquent, ambitious attempt to provide a 'grand theory' of human behavior." He further suggested that "there is little that is not offered to illustrate the potential of social cognitive theory.... If the American Psychological Association
is ever asked to contribute to a time capsule to illustrate what has preoccupied psychologists in the 1970s and early 1980s, I heartily recommend Bandura's book." However, Meichenbaum also wrote that "the conceptual framework and language of social cognitive theory can be seductive. Caution is required! Perhaps, the best place to highlight the need for such caution is in the context of a homage." He expressed cautions with regard to three issues:
In a reply that was published with these three commentaries in Psychological Inquiry
, Bandura
responded to what he called "several puzzling misconstruals of social cognitive theory" in Meichenbaum's commentary. Bandura stated that "two chapters examine how... knowledge structures are acquired through observational learning, inferences from exploratory experiences, information conveyed by tuition, and innovative cognitive syntheses of preexisting knowledge," and that "ecumenical appeals for unification of social cognitive and psychodynamic theories go unsupported by any empirical evidence for the superiority of the theoretical hybridization." Bandura responded to the other two reviews, which he called "thoughtful," by expanding on the nature of triadic reciprocal causation
, on the "interdependence of [psychological] process and structure," and on how self-efficacy is defined and measured with respect to particular domains of functioning and skill. He noted that "a major current movement in psychology is away from vague, omnibus cognitive structures to more domain-linked competencies."
Outside of the psychology literature, in Contemporary Sociology
, Spencer E. Cahill wrote that
However, Cahill also criticized the book on several grounds. He expressed concern that
Cahill also expressed concern that Bandura "closely scrutinizes empirical studies for technical flaws if their results are inconsistent with his theoretical analysis, but he does not apply the same exacting standards to studies that do support his arguments. While this is to be expected, the reader must be familiar with the research under review in order to adequately evaluate the empirical evidence that Bandura marshals."
Bandura has stated that a Russian translation has also been published.
Psychology
Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. Its immediate goal is to understand individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases. For many, the ultimate goal of psychology is to benefit society...
published in 1986 by Albert Bandura
Albert Bandura
Albert Bandura is a psychologist and the David Starr Jordan Professor Emeritus of Social Science in Psychology at Stanford University...
. The book expands Bandura's initial social learning theory
Social learning theory
-Theory:Social learning theory is derived from the work of Albert Bandura which proposed that social learning occurred through four main stages of imitation:* close contact* imitation of superiors* understanding of concepts* role model behavior...
into a comprehensive theory of human motivation and action, analyzing the role of cognitive, vicarious, self-regulatory, and self-reflective processes in psychosocial functioning. Bandura first advanced his thesis of reciprocal determinism
Reciprocal determinism
Reciprocal determinism is the theory set forth by psychologist Albert Bandura that a person's behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment. Bandura accepts the possibility of an individual's behavior being conditioned through the use of consequences...
in Social Foundations of Thought and Action.
The book was originally published in the US
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
in 1986. Translations have been published in Chinese, Russian, and Spanish.
The book has been reviewed and discussed in several professional social science journals,
and widely cited in the professional literatures of psychology
Psychology
Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. Its immediate goal is to understand individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases. For many, the ultimate goal of psychology is to benefit society...
, sociology
Sociology
Sociology is the study of society. It is a social science—a term with which it is sometimes synonymous—which uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about human social activity...
, and other fields.
Topics covered
Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory contains 10 chapters:- 1. Models of Human Nature and Causality.
- 2. Observational LearningObservational learningObservational learning is a type of learning that occurs as a function of observing, retaining and replicating novel behavior executed by others...
. - 3. Enactive Learning.
- 4. Social Diffusion and Innovation.
- 5. Predictive Knowledge and ForethoughtForesight (psychology)Foresight is the ability to predict, or the action of predicting, what will happen or what is needed in the future.Studies suggest that much of human daily thought is directed towards potential future events. Because of this and its role in human control on the planet, the nature and evolution of...
. - 6. Incentive Motivators.
- 7. Vicarious Motivators.
- 8. Self-Regulatory MechanismsSelf controlSelf control is the ability to control one's emotions, behavior and desires in order to obtain some reward later. In psychology it is sometimes called self-regulation...
. - 9. Self-EfficacySelf-efficacySelf-efficacy is a term used in psychology, roughly corresponding to a person's belief in their own competence.It has been defined as the belief that one is capable of performing in a certain manner to attain certain set of goals. It is believed that our personalized ideas of self-efficacy affect...
. - 10. Cognitive Regulators.
It also contains a preface, author and subject indices, and a 60-page reference section. The preface explained that
For convenience... theories need to be given summary labels [and] the theoretical approach presented in this volume is usually designated as social learning theorySocial learning theory-Theory:Social learning theory is derived from the work of Albert Bandura which proposed that social learning occurred through four main stages of imitation:* close contact* imitation of superiors* understanding of concepts* role model behavior...
[although] the scope of this approach has always been much broader than its descriptive label, which is becoming increasing ill-fitting.... [and] is further compounded because several theories with dissimilar postulates - Dollard and Miller's drive theory, Rotter'sJulian RotterJulian Rotter is an American psychologist who is known for developing influential theories, including social learning theory and locus of control.-Background:...
expectancy theory, and Patterson's conditioning theory - all bear the social learning label. In the interest of more fitting and separable labeling, the theoretical approach of this book is designated as social cognitive theorySocial cognitive theorySocial cognitive theory, used in psychology, education, and communication, posits that portions of an individual's knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context of social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences.-History:Social cognitive theory...
. The social portion of the terminology acknowledges the social origins of much human thought and action; the cognitive portion recognizes the influential causal contribution of thought processses to human motivation, affect, and action. (p. xii)
Reviews and influence
Reviews have appeared inContemporary Psychology
PsycCRITIQUES
PsycCRITIQUES is a database of reviews of books, videos, and popular films published by the American Psychological Association. It replaces the print journal Contemporary Psychology: APA Review of Books, which was published from 1956 to 2004. PsycCRITIQUES requires subscription to access...
,
the Academy of Management Review
Academy of Management Review
The Academy of Management Review a is peer-reviewed academic journal on management. According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal's 2009 impact factor is 7.867, ranking it first in the categories "Management" and "Business" .- External links :*...
, and
Contemporary Sociology
Contemporary Sociology
Contemporary Sociology is an academic journal in the field of sociology, published bimonthly by Sage Publications on behalf of the American Sociological Association since 1972. Contemporary Sociology publishes reviews and discussions of the most important recent works in sociology and in related...
.
It was also the focus of a special section in the inaugural issue of Psychological Inquiry
Psychological Inquiry
The Psychological Inquiry is a quarterly psychology journal published by Taylor & Francis. It aims to be a forum for the discussion of theory and meta-theory, primarily in social psychology and personality. It aims to publish ideas and theories that are broad, provocative, and debatable, while...
.
In Contemporary Psychology
PsycCRITIQUES
PsycCRITIQUES is a database of reviews of books, videos, and popular films published by the American Psychological Association. It replaces the print journal Contemporary Psychology: APA Review of Books, which was published from 1956 to 2004. PsycCRITIQUES requires subscription to access...
, Robert A. Baron
Robert A. Baron
Robert A. Baron is Professor of Management and the Spears Chair of Entrepeneurship at Oklahoma State University's Spears School of Business. He studied psychology at City University of New York and received his Ph.D. from the University of Iowa in 1968...
wrote that in his view, the book "is a work of great significance to the field" and has a "high (sometimes dazzling) level of sophistication [that] is apparent not only in the theoretical perspective but also in the extremely broad scope of the volume." The book
is so filled with intriguing findings and challenging hypotheses that several generations of researchers will undoubtedly be needed to assess its full potential.... For more than a century, psychologists have searched for a "grand theory" of human behavior—one that will provide a comprehensive, accurate, and usable account of this complex and fascinating topic.... social cognitive theory does not yet provide such an account, [but I] discern in its great breadth and sophistication outlines of the grand theory we seek.
In the Academy of Management Review
Academy of Management Review
The Academy of Management Review a is peer-reviewed academic journal on management. According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal's 2009 impact factor is 7.867, ranking it first in the categories "Management" and "Business" .- External links :*...
, Edwin A. Locke
Edwin A. Locke
Professor Edwin A Locke is an American psychologist and a pioneer in goal-setting theory. He is a retired Dean’s Professor of Motivation and Leadership at the Robert H. Smith School of Business at the University of Maryland, College Park. He was also affiliated with the Department of Psychology...
wrote that
this is a brilliant and important book that should be required reading for all doctoral students in organizational behavior, human resource management and industrial-organizational psychology... I also recommend it to organizational researchers and consultants. It is a classic that will be cited for decades to come.
In a special section in the 1990 inaugural issue of Psychological Inquiry
Psychological Inquiry
The Psychological Inquiry is a quarterly psychology journal published by Taylor & Francis. It aims to be a forum for the discussion of theory and meta-theory, primarily in social psychology and personality. It aims to publish ideas and theories that are broad, provocative, and debatable, while...
, John F. Kihlstrom and Judith M. Harackiewicz wrote that
Publication of Albert Bandura's Social Foundations of Thought and Action... was a significant event in the history of the scientific study of personality. It provides a detailed account of the acquisition of knowledge and skills relevant to personality and social interaction, provides a new perspective on motivational issues of longstanding interest, and offers an overarching framework for integrating personalityPersonality psychologyPersonality psychology is a branch of psychology that studies personality and individual differences. Its areas of focus include:* Constructing a coherent picture of the individual and his or her major psychological processes...
and social psychology.... Bandura is a central figure in the movement away from static conceptualizations of personality in terms of typesPersonality typePersonality type refers to the psychological classification of different types of individuals. Personality types are sometimes distinguished from personality traits, with the latter embodying a smaller grouping of behavioral tendencies. Types are sometimes said to involve qualitative differences...
and traitsTrait theoryIn psychology, Trait theory is a major approach to the study of human personality. Trait theorists are primarily interested in the measurement of traits, which can be defined as habitual patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion. According to this perspective, traits are relatively stable over...
, toward a more dynamic view that emphasizes the interaction between the person and his or her social environment.... his book marks the furthest departure yet made by social learning theorySocial learning theory-Theory:Social learning theory is derived from the work of Albert Bandura which proposed that social learning occurred through four main stages of imitation:* close contact* imitation of superiors* understanding of concepts* role model behavior...
from its sources in behaviorismBehaviorismBehaviorism , also called the learning perspective , is a philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that all things that organisms do—including acting, thinking, and feeling—can and should be regarded as behaviors, and that psychological disorders are best treated by altering behavior...
...
Also in that special section, Richard M. Lerner
Richard M. Lerner
Richard M. Lerner is professor of psychology at Tufts University, occupying the Bergstrom Chair in Applied Developmental Science...
, a developmental psychologist
Developmental psychology
Developmental psychology, also known as human development, is the scientific study of systematic psychological changes, emotional changes, and perception changes that occur in human beings over the course of their life span. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to...
, began by quoting several key ideas from Bandura's book, and wrote that "the set of ideas quoted at the outset of this article would not be seen as especially new to contemporary developmental psychologists." However, he went on to state that
what makes the quoted ideas quite significant and in fact provocative... is that they are not written by a developmental psychologistDevelopmental psychologyDevelopmental psychology, also known as human development, is the scientific study of systematic psychological changes, emotional changes, and perception changes that occur in human beings over the course of their life span. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to...
[but by] Albert BanduraAlbert BanduraAlbert Bandura is a psychologist and the David Starr Jordan Professor Emeritus of Social Science in Psychology at Stanford University...
, one of this country's most deservedly acclaimed personalityPersonality psychologyPersonality psychology is a branch of psychology that studies personality and individual differences. Its areas of focus include:* Constructing a coherent picture of the individual and his or her major psychological processes...
and social psychologists. Bandura's (1986) book... is a major statement.... Given Bandura's scientific stature... of scholarly contributions so seminal that its substance is obligatory knowledge for all people seeking training in psychology... his book is, then, an event of major historical importance in the study of personality and social psychology, and indeed for the discipline as a whole. By so insistently weaving development into the very fabric of the phenomena studied by personality and social psychologists, Bandura's book signals the end of one era, of one way of "doing business," in these areas of psychology, and sets the stage for the beginning of quite a different one.
In a third commentary in that special section, Donald H. Meichenbaum wrote that he "concur[red] totally" with Baron's
Robert A. Baron
Robert A. Baron is Professor of Management and the Spears Chair of Entrepeneurship at Oklahoma State University's Spears School of Business. He studied psychology at City University of New York and received his Ph.D. from the University of Iowa in 1968...
assessment of Bandura's book as "a sophisticated, eloquent, ambitious attempt to provide a 'grand theory' of human behavior." He further suggested that "there is little that is not offered to illustrate the potential of social cognitive theory.... If the American Psychological Association
American Psychological Association
The American Psychological Association is the largest scientific and professional organization of psychologists in the United States. It is the world's largest association of psychologists with around 154,000 members including scientists, educators, clinicians, consultants and students. The APA...
is ever asked to contribute to a time capsule to illustrate what has preoccupied psychologists in the 1970s and early 1980s, I heartily recommend Bandura's book." However, Meichenbaum also wrote that "the conceptual framework and language of social cognitive theory can be seductive. Caution is required! Perhaps, the best place to highlight the need for such caution is in the context of a homage." He expressed cautions with regard to three issues:
- Nature of self-efficacy theory. "Is the 'grand theory' merely an expression of common sense?" "The concept of perceived self-efficacy carries a heavy burden in explaining so many diverse behaviors. When does explaining too much mean that one is not really explaining any one thing well?" (Meichenbaum extensively quoted Smedslund.)
- Broader implications. Meichenbaum found Bandura's "discussion of the nature of the social foundations of thought and action to be somewhat narrow [so he] challenge[s] Bandura and other social cognitive theorists to consider the implications of the works of BaldwinJames Mark BaldwinJames Mark Baldwin was an American philosopher and psychologist who was educated at Princeton under the supervision of Scottish philosopher James McCosh and who was one of the founders of the Department of Psychology at the university...
(1894), MeadGeorge Herbert MeadGeorge Herbert Mead was an American philosopher, sociologist and psychologist, primarily affiliated with the University of Chicago, where he was one of several distinguished pragmatists. He is regarded as one of the founders of social psychology and the American sociological tradition in general.-...
(1934), BakhtinMikhail BakhtinMikhail Mikhailovich Bakhtin was a Russian philosopher, literary critic, semiotician and scholar who worked on literary theory, ethics, and the philosophy of language...
(Morson, 1986), VygotskyLev VygotskyLev Semyonovich Vygotsky was a Soviet psychologist, the founder of cultural-historical psychology, and the leader of the Vygotsky Circle.-Biography:...
(1978), Wertsch (1985), and Rogoff (1982), each of whom has written thoughtfully about the social formulation of the mind." - Role of cognitive structuresSchema (psychology)A schema , in psychology and cognitive science, describes any of several concepts including:* An organized pattern of thought or behavior.* A structured cluster of pre-conceived ideas....
. "It is with regard to cognitive structuresSchema (psychology)A schema , in psychology and cognitive science, describes any of several concepts including:* An organized pattern of thought or behavior.* A structured cluster of pre-conceived ideas....
... that social cognitive theory is weakest.... Bandura [refers] to 'knowledge structures, beliefs, scripts, stereotypes, and prototypes' (p. 218). Are these equivalent concepts?... [I predict] that as social cognitive theorists embrace the challenging task of understanding the nature of cognitive structures and affective themes, the supposed barriers between social learning theoristsSocial learning theory-Theory:Social learning theory is derived from the work of Albert Bandura which proposed that social learning occurred through four main stages of imitation:* close contact* imitation of superiors* understanding of concepts* role model behavior...
and psychodynamicallyPsychodynamicsPsychodynamics is the theory and systematic study of the psychological forces that underlie human behavior, especially the dynamic relations between conscious motivation and unconscious motivation...
oriented theorists will break down."
In a reply that was published with these three commentaries in Psychological Inquiry
Psychological Inquiry
The Psychological Inquiry is a quarterly psychology journal published by Taylor & Francis. It aims to be a forum for the discussion of theory and meta-theory, primarily in social psychology and personality. It aims to publish ideas and theories that are broad, provocative, and debatable, while...
, Bandura
Albert Bandura
Albert Bandura is a psychologist and the David Starr Jordan Professor Emeritus of Social Science in Psychology at Stanford University...
responded to what he called "several puzzling misconstruals of social cognitive theory" in Meichenbaum's commentary. Bandura stated that "two chapters examine how... knowledge structures are acquired through observational learning, inferences from exploratory experiences, information conveyed by tuition, and innovative cognitive syntheses of preexisting knowledge," and that "ecumenical appeals for unification of social cognitive and psychodynamic theories go unsupported by any empirical evidence for the superiority of the theoretical hybridization." Bandura responded to the other two reviews, which he called "thoughtful," by expanding on the nature of triadic reciprocal causation
Reciprocal determinism
Reciprocal determinism is the theory set forth by psychologist Albert Bandura that a person's behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment. Bandura accepts the possibility of an individual's behavior being conditioned through the use of consequences...
, on the "interdependence of [psychological] process and structure," and on how self-efficacy is defined and measured with respect to particular domains of functioning and skill. He noted that "a major current movement in psychology is away from vague, omnibus cognitive structures to more domain-linked competencies."
Outside of the psychology literature, in Contemporary Sociology
Contemporary Sociology
Contemporary Sociology is an academic journal in the field of sociology, published bimonthly by Sage Publications on behalf of the American Sociological Association since 1972. Contemporary Sociology publishes reviews and discussions of the most important recent works in sociology and in related...
, Spencer E. Cahill wrote that
Bandura may not deliver the comprehensive and interdisciplinary theory of the Social Foundations of Thought and Action that he promises in the preface, but he does advance the cause. His conception of the person, his analysis of the cognitive processes implicated in the acquisition and performance of behavior, and his devastating criticisms of a number of theoretical perspectives are all important contributions.
However, Cahill also criticized the book on several grounds. He expressed concern that
Bandura's excursions across disciplinary boundaries are far too circumscribed. For example, while the person of Bandura's social cognitive theory closely resembles the... person of the MeadianGeorge Herbert MeadGeorge Herbert Mead was an American philosopher, sociologist and psychologist, primarily affiliated with the University of Chicago, where he was one of several distinguished pragmatists. He is regarded as one of the founders of social psychology and the American sociological tradition in general.-...
sociological psychology, Bandura ignores this entire tradition.... His list of the various ways in which the person "disengages" internal control bears a striking resemblance to SykesGresham SykesGresham M'Cready Sykes was an American sociologist and criminologist. He earned a Bachelor of Arts at Princeton University and a Ph. D. at Northwestern University. He taught at Princeton, Dartmouth, and Northwestern prior to becoming sociology professor at the University of Virginia...
and Matza's "Techniques of Neutralization" (1957), yet there is no reference to this.... [and] Although Bandura's model of triadic reciprocalityReciprocal determinismReciprocal determinism is the theory set forth by psychologist Albert Bandura that a person's behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment. Bandura accepts the possibility of an individual's behavior being conditioned through the use of consequences...
suggests that the environment and behavior recursively determine one another, he is apparently unaware of... the numerous analyses by symbolic interactionistsSymbolic interactionismSymbolic Interaction, also known as interactionism, is a sociological theory that places emphasis on micro-scale social interaction to provide subjective meaning in human behavior, the social process and pragmatism.-History:...
, ethnomethodologistsEthnomethodologyEthnomethodology is an ethnographic approach to sociological inquiry introduced by the American sociologist Harold Garfinkel . Ethnomethodology's research interest is the study of the everyday methods people use for the production of social order...
, and other sociologistsSociologySociology is the study of society. It is a social science—a term with which it is sometimes synonymous—which uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about human social activity...
.
Cahill also expressed concern that Bandura "closely scrutinizes empirical studies for technical flaws if their results are inconsistent with his theoretical analysis, but he does not apply the same exacting standards to studies that do support his arguments. While this is to be expected, the reader must be familiar with the research under review in order to adequately evaluate the empirical evidence that Bandura marshals."
Editions
The original and only English-language edition was published in the US in 1986 by Prentice-Hall. Several foreign (non-English) editions have also been published. The English, Chinese and Spanish editions are: ISBN 013815614X, OCLC 12080269 (617 pages) ISBN 7561727704, OCLC 50519981 (2 volume set, 34 & 964 pages) ISBN 8427011628, OCLC 503227218 (651 pages)Bandura has stated that a Russian translation has also been published.