Senufo languages
Encyclopedia
The Senufo or Senufic languages (Senoufo in Francophone
usage) comprise ca. 15 languages spoken by the Senufo
in the north of Côte d'Ivoire
, the south of Mali
and the southwest of Burkina Faso
. An isolated language, Nafaanra
, is also spoken in the west of Ghana
. The Senufo languages are generally considered a branch of the Gur
sub-family of Niger–Congo languages
. Garber (1987) estimates the total number of Senufo
s at some 1.5 million; the Ethnologue
, based on various population estimates, counts 2.7 million.
The Senufo languages are bounded to the west by Mande languages
, to the south by Kwa languages
, and to the north and east by Central Gur languages
.
The Senufo languages are like Gur languages in that they have a suffixal noun class
system and that verbs are marked for aspect. Most Gur languages to the north of Senufo have a two tone downstep system, but the tonal system of the Senufo languages is mostly analysed as a three level tone system (High, Mid, Low).
The Senufo languages have been influenced by the neighbouring Mande languages in numerous ways. Many words have been borrowed from the Mande languages Bambara
and Jula
. Carlson (1994:2) notes that ‘it is probable that several grammatical constructions are calques on the corresponding Bambara constructions’. Like Mande languages, the Senufo languages have a subject–object–verb (SOV) constituent order, rather than the subject–verb–object (SVO) order which is more common in Gur and in Niger–Congo
as a whole.
In the influential classifications of Westermann (1927, 1970[1952]) and Bendor-Samuel (1971), the Senufo languages were classified as Gur languages. Starting with Manessy (1975) however, this classification was called into doubt. In 1989, John Naden, in his overview of the Gur family, stated that ‘[t]he remaining languages, especially Senufo, may well be no more closely related to Central Gur than to Guang or Togo Remnant, or than these to Central Gur or Volta-Comoe’ (1989:143).
in its Ethnologue subdivides the Senufo languages in six groups. Combining the two classifications results in the grouping below.
Northern Senufo
Central Senufo
Southern Senufo
Francophone
The adjective francophone means French-speaking, typically as primary language, whether referring to individuals, groups, or places. Often, the word is used as a noun to describe a natively French-speaking person....
usage) comprise ca. 15 languages spoken by the Senufo
Senufo
The Senufo are an ethnolinguistic group composed of diverse subgroups of Gur-speaking people living in an area spanning from southern Mali and the extreme western corner of Burkina Faso to Katiola in Côte d'Ivoire. One group, the Nafana, is found in north-western Ghana...
in the north of Côte d'Ivoire
Côte d'Ivoire
The Republic of Côte d'Ivoire or Ivory Coast is a country in West Africa. It has an area of , and borders the countries Liberia, Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso and Ghana; its southern boundary is along the Gulf of Guinea. The country's population was 15,366,672 in 1998 and was estimated to be...
, the south of Mali
Mali
Mali , officially the Republic of Mali , is a landlocked country in Western Africa. Mali borders Algeria on the north, Niger on the east, Burkina Faso and the Côte d'Ivoire on the south, Guinea on the south-west, and Senegal and Mauritania on the west. Its size is just over 1,240,000 km² with...
and the southwest of Burkina Faso
Burkina Faso
Burkina Faso – also known by its short-form name Burkina – is a landlocked country in west Africa. It is surrounded by six countries: Mali to the north, Niger to the east, Benin to the southeast, Togo and Ghana to the south, and Côte d'Ivoire to the southwest.Its size is with an estimated...
. An isolated language, Nafaanra
Nafaanra language
Nafaanra is a Senufo language spoken in northwest Ghana, along the border with Côte d'Ivoire, east of Bondouko. It is spoken by approximately 61,000 people. Its speakers call themselves Nafana; others call them Banda or Mfantera. Like other Senufo languages, Nafaanra is a tonal language...
, is also spoken in the west of Ghana
Ghana
Ghana , officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country located in West Africa. It is bordered by Côte d'Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, Togo to the east, and the Gulf of Guinea to the south...
. The Senufo languages are generally considered a branch of the Gur
Gur languages
The Gur languages, also known as Central Gur, belong to the Niger–Congo languages. There are about 70 languages belonging to this group. They are spoken in Burkina Faso, southern Mali, northeastern Côte d'Ivoire, northern Ghana, northern Togo, northwestern Benin, and southwestern Niger.Like most...
sub-family of Niger–Congo languages
Niger–Congo languages
The Niger–Congo languages constitute one of the world's major language families, and Africa's largest in terms of geographical area, number of speakers, and number of distinct languages. They may constitute the world's largest language family in terms of distinct languages, although this question...
. Garber (1987) estimates the total number of Senufo
Senufo
The Senufo are an ethnolinguistic group composed of diverse subgroups of Gur-speaking people living in an area spanning from southern Mali and the extreme western corner of Burkina Faso to Katiola in Côte d'Ivoire. One group, the Nafana, is found in north-western Ghana...
s at some 1.5 million; the Ethnologue
Ethnologue
Ethnologue: Languages of the World is a web and print publication of SIL International , a Christian linguistic service organization, which studies lesser-known languages, to provide the speakers with Bibles in their native language and support their efforts in language development.The Ethnologue...
, based on various population estimates, counts 2.7 million.
The Senufo languages are bounded to the west by Mande languages
Mande languages
The Mande languages are spoken in several countries in West Africa by the Mandé people and include Mandinka, Soninke, Bambara, Bissa, Dioula, Kagoro, Bozo, Mende, Susu, Yacouba, Vai, and Ligbi...
, to the south by Kwa languages
Kwa languages
The Kwa languages, often specified as New Kwa, are a proposed but as-yet-undemonstrated family of languages spoken in the south-eastern part of Côte d'Ivoire, across southern Ghana, and in central Togo...
, and to the north and east by Central Gur languages
Gur languages
The Gur languages, also known as Central Gur, belong to the Niger–Congo languages. There are about 70 languages belonging to this group. They are spoken in Burkina Faso, southern Mali, northeastern Côte d'Ivoire, northern Ghana, northern Togo, northwestern Benin, and southwestern Niger.Like most...
.
The Senufo languages are like Gur languages in that they have a suffixal noun class
Noun class
In linguistics, the term noun class refers to a system of categorizing nouns. A noun may belong to a given class because of characteristic features of its referent, such as sex, animacy, shape, but counting a given noun among nouns of such or another class is often clearly conventional...
system and that verbs are marked for aspect. Most Gur languages to the north of Senufo have a two tone downstep system, but the tonal system of the Senufo languages is mostly analysed as a three level tone system (High, Mid, Low).
The Senufo languages have been influenced by the neighbouring Mande languages in numerous ways. Many words have been borrowed from the Mande languages Bambara
Bambara language
Bambara, more correctly known as Bamanankan , its designation in the language itself , is a language spoken in Mali by as many as six million people...
and Jula
Jula
Jula refers to:* Dioula language spoken in western Africa* Jula people of western Africa* Jula AB, mail order and store*Jula, Afghanistan...
. Carlson (1994:2) notes that ‘it is probable that several grammatical constructions are calques on the corresponding Bambara constructions’. Like Mande languages, the Senufo languages have a subject–object–verb (SOV) constituent order, rather than the subject–verb–object (SVO) order which is more common in Gur and in Niger–Congo
Niger–Congo languages
The Niger–Congo languages constitute one of the world's major language families, and Africa's largest in terms of geographical area, number of speakers, and number of distinct languages. They may constitute the world's largest language family in terms of distinct languages, although this question...
as a whole.
Classification
Delafosse (1904:192–217) was the first linguist to write on the Senufo languages. He noted that the Senufo were often confused with the Mande, partly because use of Mande languages by the Senufo was widespread:- [L]a langue mandé s'est répandue parmi eux, des alliances nombreuses ont eu lieu... C'est là l'origine de la confusion que l'on a faite souvent entre Mandé et Sénoufo ... alors que, au triple point de vue ethnographique, antropologique et linguistique, la différence est profonde entre ces deux familles. (p. 193)
In the influential classifications of Westermann (1927, 1970[1952]) and Bendor-Samuel (1971), the Senufo languages were classified as Gur languages. Starting with Manessy (1975) however, this classification was called into doubt. In 1989, John Naden, in his overview of the Gur family, stated that ‘[t]he remaining languages, especially Senufo, may well be no more closely related to Central Gur than to Guang or Togo Remnant, or than these to Central Gur or Volta-Comoe’ (1989:143).
Subclassification
Early Senufo classifications (e.g. Bendor-Samuel 1971) were mainly geographically motivated, dividing the Senufo languages into Northern, Central, and Southern Senufo. In subsequent years, this terminology was adopted by several linguists working on Senufo languages (Garber 1987; Carlson 1983, 1994). Mensah (1983) and Mills (1984) avoided this geographical terms but used mainly the same grouping, according to Garber 1987. SIL InternationalSIL International
SIL International is a U.S.-based, worldwide, Christian non-profit organization, whose main purpose is to study, develop and document languages, especially those that are lesser-known, in order to expand linguistic knowledge, promote literacy, translate the Christian Bible into local languages,...
in its Ethnologue subdivides the Senufo languages in six groups. Combining the two classifications results in the grouping below.
Northern Senufo
- Suppire–Mamara languages
- Mamara (Minyanka, Mianka)
- NanerigeNanerige languageNanerige is a Senufo language spoken in south-western Burkina Faso....
(Nanergé) - SuciteSucite languageSucite is a Senufo language spoken in southwestern Burkina Faso by approximately 35 000 people. Sucite is a close neighbour of Supyire, spoken in southeastern Mali. Sucite is sometimes regarded as the northern extension of Supyire. The two dialects are, according to Garber , ‘quite mutually...
(Sicite, Sìcìté) - SupyireSupyire languageSupyire, or Suppire, is the name of a language centralized in the Sikasso Region region of southeastern Mali, in western Africa. Supyire is spoken by an estimated 364,000 Supyire people, according to Ethnologue. The language belongs to the larger language group of Senufo, a member of the Gur...
(Suppire) - ShempireShempire languageShempire is a Senufo language of Ivory Coast. It is not clear how distinct it is from the related Supyire language of Mali....
(Syempire)
Central Senufo
- Karaboro languagesKaraboro languagesThe Karaboro languages are spoken in Burkina Faso by approximately 65 000 people . They belong to the Senufo subfamily, but are separated from other Senufo languages by a small band of unrelated languages. Within Senufo they are thought to be most closely related to the Senari...
- Eastern KaraboroKar languageKar , or Eastern Karaboro, is a central Senufo of Burkina Faso. Kar speakers have moderate comprehension of Western Karaboro, but the reverse is not the case....
(Kar) - Western KaraboroSyer-Tenyer languageSyer-Tenyer, or Western Karaboro, is a pair of Senufo dialects of Burkina Faso....
(Syer-Tenyer)
- Eastern Karaboro
- Senari languagesSenari languagesThe Senari languages form a central dialect cluster of the Senufo languages. They are spoken in northern Côte d'Ivoire, southern Mali and southwest Burkina Faso by more than a million Senufo. Four varieties can be distinguished, Cebaara, Nyarafolo, Senara and Syenara, all with several dialects...
- CebaaraCebaara languageCebaara , one of a cluster of languages called Senari, is a major Senufo language, spoken by a million people in Ivory Coast....
(Tyebaala) - SenaraSenara languageSenara, one of a cluster of languages called Senari, is a Senufo language of Ivory Coast....
- NyarafoloNyarafolo languageNyarafolo , one of a cluster of languages called Senari, is a Senufo language of Ivory Coast....
- SyenaraSyenara languageSyenara , one of a cluster of languages called Senari, is a Senufo language of Mali, spoken by a hundred thousand people....
- Cebaara
- KpalagaPalaka languagePalaka is a central Senufo language spoken by approximately 8 000 people in northern Côte d'Ivoire. It is bordered to the south by Djimini, a southern Senufo language, and to the west by Nyarafolo, another Senufo language...
(Palaka)
Southern Senufo
- Tagwana–Djimini languages
- NafaanraNafaanra languageNafaanra is a Senufo language spoken in northwest Ghana, along the border with Côte d'Ivoire, east of Bondouko. It is spoken by approximately 61,000 people. Its speakers call themselves Nafana; others call them Banda or Mfantera. Like other Senufo languages, Nafaanra is a tonal language...
(Nafaara)
Linguistic features
- Carlson, Robert (1994) A Grammar of Supyire. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-014057-8.
- Carlson, Robert (1997) The Senufo Languages. CP/CV 2: Actes du CILG1, 23–42.
- Garber, Anne (1980) 'Word order change and the Senufo languages.' In Studies in the Linguistic Sciences, 10, 1, 45–57.
- Garber, Anne (1987) A Tonal Analysis of Senufo: Sucite dialect (Gur; Burkina Faso). PhD dissertation, Urbana: University of Illinois / Ann Arbor: UMI.
- Garber, Anne (1991) 'The phonological structure of the Senufo word (Sicite)', Journal of West African Languages, 21, 2, 3–20.
- Manessy, Gabriel (1996a) 'La determination nominal en sénoufo', Linguistique Africaine, 16, 53–68.
- Manessy, Gabriel (1996b) 'Observations sur la classification nominale en sénoufo' , Afrika und Übersee, 79, 21–35.
- Mills, Elizabeth (1984) Senoufo phonology, discourse to syllabe (a prosodic approach) SIL publications in linguistics (ISSN 1040-0850), 72.
Classification
- Bendor-Samuel, John (1971) 'Niger–Congo: Gur' in: Thomas Sebeok & Jack Berry (eds.), Linguistics in sub-saharan Africa (Current trends in linguistics 7), The Hauge/Paris: Mouton, 141–178.
- Delafosse, Maurice (1904) Vocabulaires comparatifs de plus de 60 langues ou dialects parlés à la Côte d' Ivoire ou dans les régions limitrophes (avec des notes linguistiques et ethnologiques, une bibliographie et une carte). Paris: Leroux.
- Manessy, Gabriel (1975) Les langues Oti–Volta. Paris: SELAF.
- Mensah, E.N.A. and Z. Tchagbale (1983) Atlas des langues Gur de Côte d’Ivoire. Abidjan: Institut de Linguistique Applique.
- Westermann, Diedrich & Bryan, M.A. (1970 [1952]). The Languages of West Africa. Oxford: International African Institute / Oxford University Press.
- Williamson, Kay & Blench, Roger (2000) 'Niger–Congo', in Heine, Bernd & Nurse, Derek (eds.) African languages: an introduction, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 11—42.
External links
- The Senufo languages on EthnologueEthnologueEthnologue: Languages of the World is a web and print publication of SIL International , a Christian linguistic service organization, which studies lesser-known languages, to provide the speakers with Bibles in their native language and support their efforts in language development.The Ethnologue...
. - Map of Nanergé language from the LL-Map Project
- Information on Nanergé language from the MultiTree Project
- Map of Senara language from the LL-Map Project
- Information on Senara language from the MultiTree Project
- Map of Sìcìté language from the LL-Map Project
- Information on Sìcìté language from the Multitree Project