Scar literature
Encyclopedia
Scar literature or literature of the wounded is a genre of Chinese literature
which emerged in the late 1970s, soon after the death of Mao Zedong
, portraying the sufferings of cadres and intellectual
s during the tragic experiences of the Cultural Revolution
and the rule of the Gang of Four
.
The first exemplar of the genre is generally agreed to be Lu Xinhua's 1978 story "Scar", which attacked official hypocrisy and corruption. Liu Xinwu
's 1977 short story "The Class Teacher" (班主任) has also been described as the pioneer of scar literature, though this assessment is disputed.
Most of the representative authors were in their thirties and forties at the time; they worked as salaried writers and editors, and published their works in state-sponsored literary journals. The moral outrage they expressed in their works resonated with the public, contributing to its popularity.
The growth of scar literature corresponded with the Beijing Spring
, a period of greater openness in Chinese society; scar literature has even been described as a "second Hundred Flowers Movement
". Though scar literature focuses on trauma and oppression, and has been described as largely negative, love and faith remained its major themes; its practitioners were typically not opposed to Communism, but on the converse retained faith in the ability of the Party to rectify past tragedies, and "embraced love as a key to solving social problems". Regardless, though their writing was hailed as marking a revival of the tradition of socialist realism
in the arts, it in fact represented a break from the socialist tradition, as it was no longer subject to party control, and was not under an obligation to serve the purpose of political education for the masses.
However, scar literature did not entirely receive a free pass from the Party establishment; due to its criticisms of the Communist Party
and of Mao himself, as well as its exposure of social problems, it came under attack by conservatives as early as 1979. Events such as the trial of Wei Jingsheng
signalled writers that there were limits to the open discussion of the past errors of the Party, and after the end of the trial of the Gang of Four, the political climate chilled significantly. Eventually, the government began to crack down on scar literature as part of a wider campaign against "bourgeois liberalism
" Deng Xiaoping
himself provided major support for the campaign, even though his return to Chinese politics after his earlier disgrace and his political victory over rival Hua Guofeng
relied heavily on the repudiation of ultra-leftist Maoism inherent in scar literature, and its influence on public opinion. The campaign against scar literature was itself unusual in that, unlike earlier campaigns against liberalism, official criticisms were generally limited to attacks on its content, rather than denunciations of individuals.
Not all works by authors who lived through the Cultural Revolution can be classified as scar literature. Zhang Chengzhi
in particular is notable for his idealism regarding his experiences during the Cultural Revolution; his works such as Black Stallion and Rivers of the North have been described as rebuttals to the "negativism of scar literature".
Chinese literature
Chinese literature extends thousands of years, from the earliest recorded dynastic court archives to the mature fictional novels that arose during the Ming Dynasty to entertain the masses of literate Chinese...
which emerged in the late 1970s, soon after the death of Mao Zedong
Mao Zedong
Mao Zedong, also transliterated as Mao Tse-tung , and commonly referred to as Chairman Mao , was a Chinese Communist revolutionary, guerrilla warfare strategist, Marxist political philosopher, and leader of the Chinese Revolution...
, portraying the sufferings of cadres and intellectual
Intellectual
An intellectual is a person who uses intelligence and critical or analytical reasoning in either a professional or a personal capacity.- Terminology and endeavours :"Intellectual" can denote four types of persons:...
s during the tragic experiences of the Cultural Revolution
Cultural Revolution
The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, commonly known as the Cultural Revolution , was a socio-political movement that took place in the People's Republic of China from 1966 through 1976...
and the rule of the Gang of Four
Gang of Four
The Gang of Four was the name given to a political faction composed of four Chinese Communist Party officials. They came to prominence during the Cultural Revolution and were subsequently charged with a series of treasonous crimes...
.
The first exemplar of the genre is generally agreed to be Lu Xinhua's 1978 story "Scar", which attacked official hypocrisy and corruption. Liu Xinwu
Liu Xinwu
Liu Xinwu is a Chinese author, and one of the earliest proponents of the post-Maoist wave of Chinese literature.-Biography:Born in the province of Sichuan, his family moved to Beijing, a city that figures prominently in his work, in 1950...
's 1977 short story "The Class Teacher" (班主任) has also been described as the pioneer of scar literature, though this assessment is disputed.
Most of the representative authors were in their thirties and forties at the time; they worked as salaried writers and editors, and published their works in state-sponsored literary journals. The moral outrage they expressed in their works resonated with the public, contributing to its popularity.
The growth of scar literature corresponded with the Beijing Spring
Beijing Spring
The Beijing Spring refers to a brief period of political liberalization in the People's Republic of China which occurred in 1977 and 1978. The name is derived from "Prague Spring", an analogous event which occurred in Czechoslovakia in 1968....
, a period of greater openness in Chinese society; scar literature has even been described as a "second Hundred Flowers Movement
Hundred Flowers Campaign
The Hundred Flowers Campaign, also termed the Hundred Flowers Movement, refers mainly to a brief six weeks in the People's Republic of China in the early summer of 1957 during which the Communist Party of China encouraged a variety of views and solutions to national policy issues, launched...
". Though scar literature focuses on trauma and oppression, and has been described as largely negative, love and faith remained its major themes; its practitioners were typically not opposed to Communism, but on the converse retained faith in the ability of the Party to rectify past tragedies, and "embraced love as a key to solving social problems". Regardless, though their writing was hailed as marking a revival of the tradition of socialist realism
Socialist realism
Socialist realism is a style of realistic art which was developed in the Soviet Union and became a dominant style in other communist countries. Socialist realism is a teleologically-oriented style having its purpose the furtherance of the goals of socialism and communism...
in the arts, it in fact represented a break from the socialist tradition, as it was no longer subject to party control, and was not under an obligation to serve the purpose of political education for the masses.
However, scar literature did not entirely receive a free pass from the Party establishment; due to its criticisms of the Communist Party
Communist Party of China
The Communist Party of China , also known as the Chinese Communist Party , is the founding and ruling political party of the People's Republic of China...
and of Mao himself, as well as its exposure of social problems, it came under attack by conservatives as early as 1979. Events such as the trial of Wei Jingsheng
Wei Jingsheng
Wei Jingsheng is a Chinese activist known for his involvement in the Chinese democracy movement, most prominent for authoring the document Fifth Modernization on the "Democracy Wall" in Beijing in 1978. He is generally known for getting arrested and spending 15 years in prison due to the document...
signalled writers that there were limits to the open discussion of the past errors of the Party, and after the end of the trial of the Gang of Four, the political climate chilled significantly. Eventually, the government began to crack down on scar literature as part of a wider campaign against "bourgeois liberalism
Bourgeois liberalism
Bourgeois liberalism refers to either parliamentary democracy or Western popular culture. The foundations for bourgeois liberalism is that of Adam Smith's writing The Wealth of Nations, seen in 19th-century classical economic liberalism. The French term bourgeois' origins are that of 'middle...
" Deng Xiaoping
Deng Xiaoping
Deng Xiaoping was a Chinese politician, statesman, and diplomat. As leader of the Communist Party of China, Deng was a reformer who led China towards a market economy...
himself provided major support for the campaign, even though his return to Chinese politics after his earlier disgrace and his political victory over rival Hua Guofeng
Hua Guofeng
Su Zhu, better known by the nom de guerre Hua Guofeng , was Mao Zedong's designated successor as the Paramount Leader of the Communist Party of China and the People's Republic of China. Upon Zhou Enlai's death in 1976, he succeeded Zhou as the second Premier of the People's Republic of China...
relied heavily on the repudiation of ultra-leftist Maoism inherent in scar literature, and its influence on public opinion. The campaign against scar literature was itself unusual in that, unlike earlier campaigns against liberalism, official criticisms were generally limited to attacks on its content, rather than denunciations of individuals.
Not all works by authors who lived through the Cultural Revolution can be classified as scar literature. Zhang Chengzhi
Zhang Chengzhi
Zhang Chengzhi is a contemporary Hui Chinese author. Often named as the most influential Muslim writer in China, his historical narrative History of the Soul, about the rise of the Jahriyya Sufi order , was the second-most popular book in China in 1994.-Biography:Zhang was born in Beijing in 1948...
in particular is notable for his idealism regarding his experiences during the Cultural Revolution; his works such as Black Stallion and Rivers of the North have been described as rebuttals to the "negativism of scar literature".