Romanian anti-communist resistance movement

An armed resistance movement against the communist regime

Eastern European Anti-Communist Insurgencies

The Eastern European Anti-Communist Insurgencies fought on after the official end of the Second World War against the Soviet Union and the communist states formed under Soviet occupation.Prominent movements include:...

in Romania

Romania

Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea...

was active from the late 1940s to the mid-1950s, with isolated individual fighters remaining at large until the early 1960s. Armed resistance was the first and most structured form of resistance against the communist regime. It wasn’t until the overthrow of Nicolae Ceauşescu

Nicolae Ceausescu

Nicolae Ceaușescu was a Romanian Communist politician. He was General Secretary of the Romanian Communist Party from 1965 to 1989, and as such was the country's second and last Communist leader...

in late 1989 that details about what was called “anti-communist armed resistance” were made public. It was only then that the public learnt about the several small armed groups, which sometimes termed themselves "haiducs", that had taken refuge in the Carpathian Mountains

Carpathian Mountains

The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians are a range of mountains forming an arc roughly long across Central and Eastern Europe, making them the second-longest mountain range in Europe...

, where some hid for ten years from authorities. The last fighter was eliminated in the mountains of Banat

Banat

The Banat is a geographical and historical region in Central Europe currently divided between three countries: the eastern part lies in western Romania , the western part in northeastern Serbia , and a small...

in 1962. The Romanian resistance was one of the longest lasting armed movements in the former Soviet bloc

Eastern bloc

The term Eastern Bloc or Communist Bloc refers to the former communist states of Eastern and Central Europe, generally the Soviet Union and the countries of the Warsaw Pact...

Preliminaries

In March 1944, the Red Army

Red Army

The Workers' and Peasants' Red Army started out as the Soviet Union's revolutionary communist combat groups during the Russian Civil War of 1918-1922. It grew into the national army of the Soviet Union. By the 1930s the Red Army was among the largest armies in history.The "Red Army" name refers to...

set foot in Bukovina

Bukovina

Bukovina is a historical region on the northern slopes of the northeastern Carpathian Mountains and the adjoining plains.-Name:The name Bukovina came into official use in 1775 with the region's annexation from the Principality of Moldavia to the possessions of the Habsburg Monarchy, which became...

advancing into Romanian territory

Battle of Romania

The Battle of Romania in World War II comprised several operations in or around Romania in 1944, as part of the Eastern Front. The Red Army launched two offensives against combined German-Romanian defenses in an attempt to reclaim the Moldavian SSR and open a way into the Balkans:*The First...

, at the time an ally of Nazi Germany

Nazi Germany

Nazi Germany , also known as the Third Reich , but officially called German Reich from 1933 to 1943 and Greater German Reich from 26 June 1943 onward, is the name commonly used to refer to the state of Germany from 1933 to 1945, when it was a totalitarian dictatorship ruled by...

. Hundreds of people went into the forests forming anti-Soviet guerrilla groups of 15-20 people.

After the Soviet-Romanian Armistice (11–12 September 1944), the Red Army had free run in Romania and the Romanian government did not have authority over Northern Bukovina.
In late 1944 and early 1945, some small armed groups were formed in Romania, with a mission of harassing the Red Army in a future Soviet-Western War.
After the war, most of these groups dissolved while others remained in the mountains until 1948, when they became active. In May 1946, General Aurel Aldea

Aurel Aldea

Aurel Aldea was a Romanian general and anti-communist resistance leader.-Biography :Born in Slatina in 1887, he served briefly as Minister of the Interior in the Constantin Sănătescu government of Romania....

, the former Minister of the Interior of the Sănătescu

Constantin Sanatescu

Constantin Sănătescu was a Romanian statesman who served as the first Prime Minister of Romania after the August 23, 1944 coup, through which Romania left the Axis Powers and joined the Allies....

government, was arrested and charged with "bringing together various subversive organisations under his command". It appears, however, that the "National Resistance Movement", which he coordinated, posed little threat, if any, to the establishment of the communist regime.

After the elections of 1946

Romanian general election, 1946

The Romanian general election of 1946 was a general election held on November 19, 1946, in Romania. Officially, it was carried with 79.86% of the vote by the Romanian Communist Party , its allies inside the Bloc of Democratic Parties , and its associates — the Hungarian People's Union , the...

, a coalescence of anti-communist

Anti-communism

Anti-communism is opposition to communism. Organized anti-communism developed in reaction to the rise of communism, especially after the 1917 October Revolution in Russia and the beginning of the Cold War in 1947.-Objections to communist theory:...

forces led to a structure reuniting generals, senior officers and politicians preparing and coordinating armed groups under a single command. The central coordinating structure inside Romania reported on this initiative to the Romanian National Council residing in Paris

Paris

Paris is the capital and largest city in France, situated on the river Seine, in northern France, at the heart of the Île-de-France region...

, which in turn informed the Western governments. The project was eventually intercepted by the Romanian authorities, which subsequently carried out massive arrests in spring 1948, comprising up to 80% of those who were implicated in the movement. Thus, the coordinated national resistance was decapitated.

Onset of the armed resistance movement

However, starting with the summer of 1948, individuals or small groups went underground into the Carpathians, forming various groups of armed resistance in what was a relatively large movement, gathering several thousand people. The rebels came from all social strata and all areas of the country, spreading everywhere the terrain could shield them. The movement was related to the spate of mass arrests hitting the country after the communist power seizure on the eve of 1948, as well as to the political and economical measures which ruined a sizeable part of the peasantry and the middle class.

There were several reasons for people seeking shelter in the mountains. While some went underground to escape imminent arrest, more generally people fled as they abandoned hope for surviving after being economically ruined and risking detention or worse. Significantly, entire families took flight in late 1948 and early 1949. Thus, the British consular official in Cluj

Cluj-Napoca

Cluj-Napoca , commonly known as Cluj, is the fourth most populous city in Romania and the seat of Cluj County in the northwestern part of the country. Geographically, it is roughly equidistant from Bucharest , Budapest and Belgrade...

, reporting on May 1, 1949 on the situation of partisans under the leadership of General Dragalina noted that:

“clothing and medicine are short and this is probably true as their numbers have been increased by a considerable proportion of women and children since the March 1st land expropriation. I have been given a figure as high as 20,000 as the number who has joined since the expropriation (…) The increase in the number of women and children will create problems of survival next winter (…) I am told now and again of lorries of army supplies going over to the partisans, sometimes by capture and sometimes by desertion, but I cannot say to what extent…"

The members of the armed resistance were not called "partisans" by the population, but haiduci, a word for the generous highwaymen, considered folk heroes.

A further major component of the armed resistance consisted of individuals and groups motivated by anti-communist convictions and persuaded that only an armed engagement could contain increasing terror and prevent an irrevocable communist takeover. Some of the resistance groups were led by ex-army officers and acted in a more coordinated and planned way. It appears that they put their hope in stirring up a more general armed insurrection, which never came to life. A smaller category of insurgents were Romanian refugees recruited in Europe by the Office of Policy Coordination

Office of Policy Coordination

The Office of Policy Coordination was a United States covert psychological operations and paramilitary action organization. Created as an independent office in 1948, it was merged with the Central Intelligence Agency in 1951....

, trained in France, Italy and Greece and then dropped in the Carpathians. It seems, however, that most of them, not being able to create local contacts imperative for survival, were soon captured.

Resistance groups

Ion Gavrilă-Ogoranu, a member of the fascist

Fascism

Fascism is a radical authoritarian nationalist political ideology. Fascists seek to rejuvenate their nation based on commitment to the national community as an organic entity, in which individuals are bound together in national identity by suprapersonal connections of ancestry, culture, and blood...

and anti-Semitic Iron Guard

Iron Guard

The Iron Guard is the name most commonly given to a far-right movement and political party in Romania in the period from 1927 into the early part of World War II. The Iron Guard was ultra-nationalist, fascist, anti-communist, and promoted the Orthodox Christian faith...

who led a resistance group in the Făgăraş Mountains

Fagaras Mountains

Făgăraș Mountains , are the highest mountains of the Southern Carpathians, in Romania. The highest peaks are Moldoveanu , Negoiu , Viștea Mare , Lespezi , Vânătoarea lui Buteanu , and Dara .They are bordered in the north by the Făgăraș Depression, through which the Olt river flows, and in the west...

from 1948 to 1956, and remained undetected until 1976, worked out a set of defining traits of the typical Romanian resistance group. According to this author, such a group was rather small, but could number up to 200 men. A resistance group was located in a mountainous/forested area which comprised some communities. It was supported by a significant number of inhabitants (up to several thousands), who provided shelter, food and information.

Resistance groups were the target of systematic and enduring military actions from fully armed regular troops of the Securitate

Securitate

The Securitate was the secret police agency of Communist Romania. Previously, the Romanian secret police was called Siguranţa Statului. Founded on August 30, 1948, with help from the Soviet NKVD, the Securitate was abolished in December 1989, shortly after President Nicolae Ceaușescu was...

. The strength of the Securitate troops could vary from platoon to battalion up to regiment, including armoured vehicles, artillery and occasionally even aviation. The insurgent

Insurgent

Insurgent, insurgents or insurgency can refer to:* The act of insurgency-Specific insurgencies:* Iraqi insurgency, uprising in Iraq* Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir, uprising in India* Insurgency in North-East India...

groups sustained losses consisting of dead and wounded captured by the Securitate. They also fell victim to treason from supporters or infiltrated persons, which led to losses and captures. Gavrilă-Ogoranu claims that some of the arrested rebels and their supporters were killed during interrogation, while other members of resistance groups were indicted in public or secret trials, and sentenced to death or prison. He estimates that several thousands of convictions were imposed. Death penalties were carried out either secretly, with bodies thrown into unknown common graves, or publicly in order to intimidate the local population. A significant number of detained rebels, who had not been sentenced to death, were killed outside prisons, under unexplained circumstances. In areas where the rebels were active, the population underwent systematic intimidation

Intimidation

Intimidation is intentional behavior "which would cause a person of ordinary sensibilities" fear of injury or harm. It's not necessary to prove that the behavior was so violent as to cause terror or that the victim was actually frightened.Criminal threatening is the crime of intentionally or...

and terror

Terror

Terror may refer to:*Fear, an emotional response to threats and danger*Terror, a political strategy of the asymmetrical use of threats and violence against enemies using means that fall outside the routine forms of political struggle operating within some current regime*Terrorism, the fact of...

from the authorities.

Structure and function

Dispersal, extent and duration of the resistance rendered research after 1990 more difficult in ascertaining structural information on the movement. Evaluating the archives of the Securitate the CNSAS (National Council for the Study of the Securitate Archives) has assessed a provisional figure of 1196 resistance groups acting between 1948 and 1960. The size of the groups varied from small groupings of less than 10 members to intermediate sized groups counting around 40 fighters up to larger detachments of more than 100 men, with the highest distribution density

Probability density function

In probability theory, a probability density function , or density of a continuous random variable is a function that describes the relative likelihood for this random variable to occur at a given point. The probability for the random variable to fall within a particular region is given by the...

placed around a strength of 15–20 men. According to these assumptions, the total number of active resistance fighters may not fall below 10,000 persons, with an estimated figure of at least 40–50,000 supporting persons. The number of killed victims on the insurgents’ side could be established according to both archive data and various memoirs published after 1990. The archives revealed several hundreds of death penalties, yet a much larger number of resisters have been killed either in battle or during different phases of detention. An estimated figure could amount 2,000 lost lives.

The social structure of the insurgent groups was heterogeneous, comprising a considerable part of peasants, many students and intellectuals as well as several army officers. A report of the Securitate from 1951 containing information on 804 arrested resistance members ranking among 17 “mountain bands” reveals following political affiliation: 11% National Peasant Party, 10% Ploughmen's Front

Ploughmen's Front

The Ploughmen's Front was a Romanian left-wing agrarian-inspired political organisation of ploughmen, founded at Deva in 1933 and led by Petru Groza. At its peak in 1946, the Front had over 1 million members.-History:...

, 9% Iron Guard

Iron Guard

, 5% Communist Party, 2% National Liberal Party

National Liberal Party (Romania)

The National Liberal Party , abbreviated to PNL, is a centre-right liberal party in Romania. It is the third-largest party in the Romanian Parliament, with 53 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and 22 in the Senate: behind the centre-right Democratic Liberal Party and the centre-left Social...

List of major resistance groups

The territorial structure of the resistance covered mainly the mountainous and heavy forested parts of the country. A list of some of the most important resistance groups and their location:

Area	Name of the group/group leader (mostly in order Surname - First name Romanian Names Romanian Names is the seventh album by American singer-songwriter John Vanderslice. It was released in the United States on May 19, 2009.-Critical praise:... )
Maramureş Maramures County Maramureș is a county of Romania, in the Maramureș region. The county seat is Baia Mare.- History :* The 10th century frontier county of Borsova was founded by Stephen I of Hungary. Since then Máramaros served as the north-eastern border of the Hungarian Kingdom until 1920, the Trianon Peace...	Mihali-Ştrifundă Gavrilă; Popşa Vasile; Zubaşcu Ilie; Ilban Ion; Pop Nicolae; Vasile Dunca; group of Uniate priests
Rodna Mountains Rodna Mountains Rodna Mountains are a subdivision of the Eastern Carpathians in Northern Romania. The name comes from the nearby Rodna Veche village.The Rodna Mountains have one of the longest continuous ridges in Romania, with over 50 km from west to east...	”Cross and Sword Organization” (Bodiu Leonida)
Bucovina Suceava County Suceava is a county of Romania, in the historical region of Moldavia and few villages in Transylvania, with the capital city at Suceava.- Demographics :...	Constantin Cenuşă, Constantin Cenuţă, Vasile Motrescu; Col. Cârlan Vasile; Grigore Sandu; Cămăruţă Vasile; Harsmei Silvestru; Vatamaniuc Gavril; Ion Vatamaniuc, Vladimir Macoveiciuc, Petru Maruseac, Sumanele Negre, Tinerii Partizani ai României.
Suceava Suceava Suceava is the Suceava County seat in Bukovina, Moldavia region, in north-eastern Romania. The city was the capital of the Principality of Moldavia from 1388 to 1565.-History:...	Hazmei Silvestru; “Decebal’s Guards” (Gǎrzile lui Decebal), Ion and Gheorghe Chiraş.
Crişul Alb River and Arad Arad, Romania Arad is the capital city of Arad County, in western Romania, in the Crişana region, on the river Mureş.An important industrial center and transportation hub, Arad is also the seat of a Romanian Orthodox archbishop and features two universities, a Romanian Orthodox theological seminary, a training...	Şirianu Valer; „National Liberation Movement”; Mihuţiu Adrian; Cantemir Gligor; Luluşa Ion;
Bistriţa-Năsăud Bistrita-Nasaud County Bistrița-Năsăud is a county of Romania, in Transylvania, with the capital city at Bistrița.-Demographics:In 2002, it had a population of 311,657 and the population density was 58/km².Romanians – 90.3%Hungarians – 5.9%*Roma – 3.6%...	Haiducii lui Avram Iancu
Apuseni Mountains Apuseni Mountains The Apuseni Mountains is a mountain range in Transylvania, Romania, which belongs to the Western Carpathians, also called Occidentali in Romanian. Their name translates from Romanian as Mountains "of the sunset" i.e. "western". The highest peak is "Cucurbăta Mare" - 1849 metres, also called Bihor...	”White Army” (Capt. Suciu Alexandru); “National Defence Front – Hajduk Corps” (Maj. Dabija Nicolae – brothers Macavei); Dr. Capotă Iosif -Dr. Dejeu Alexandru; Şuşman Teodor; Robu Ioan; Popa Ştefan; Crişan Ioan – Abăcioaiei Leon; Sandu Maxim; brothers Spaniol; ”Cross and Sword Organization”; Acft. Capt. Ionescu Diamandi
Cluj Cluj-Napoca Cluj-Napoca , commonly known as Cluj, is the fourth most populous city in Romania and the seat of Cluj County in the northwestern part of the country. Geographically, it is roughly equidistant from Bucharest , Budapest and Belgrade...	Paşca Gheorghe; Podea Alexandru; Pop; Maj. Oniga Emil; Deac Cornel
Bacău Bacau Bacău is the main city in Bacău County, Romania. It covers a land surface of 43 km², and, as of January 1, 2009, has an estimated population of 177,087. The city is situated in the historical region of Moldavia, at the foothills of the Carpathian Mountains, and on the Bistriţa River...	Corduneanu Vasile; Uturea group (Unguraşu Gheorghe, Baciu Petre)
Banat Banat The Banat is a geographical and historical region in Central Europe currently divided between three countries: the eastern part lies in western Romania , the western part in northeastern Serbia , and a small...	Col. Uţă Ion; Blănaru Spiru; Vernichescu Aurel; Acft. Cdr. Domăşneanu Petru; Popovici Nicolae; Ionescu Gheorghe; Ambruş Petru; “Great Romania Partisans”; brothers Blaj Blaj Blaj is a city in Alba County, Transylvania, Romania. It has a population of 20,758 inhabitants.The landmark of the city is the fact that it was the principal religious and cultural center of the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church in Transylvania.... ; Tănase Ion; Isfănuţ Dumitru (Sfârlogea); Doran Nicolae; Vuc Liviu
Hunedoara Hunedoara Hunedoara is a city in Hunedoara County, Transylvania, Romania. It is located in southeastern Transylvania near the Poiana Ruscă Mountains, and administers five villages: Boş, Groş, Hăşdat, Peştişu Mare and Răcăştia....	Caragea Lazăr; Vitan Petru
Sibiu Sibiu Sibiu is a city in Transylvania, Romania with a population of 154,548. Located some 282 km north-west of Bucharest, the city straddles the Cibin River, a tributary of the river Olt...	resistance point Fetea
Covasna Covasna Covasna is a town in Covasna county, Transylvania, Romania, at an altitude of 550–600 m.Known as the "town of 1,000 mineral springs," Covasna is famous for its mineral waters. Each spring has a different mixture of minerals, chiefly carbon dioxide, sulfur, and ammonia...	”Vlad Ţepeş Organisation” (Lupşa Victor, Corneliu Gheorghe-Szavras)
Braşov Brasov Brașov is a city in Romania and the capital of Brașov County.According to the last Romanian census, from 2002, there were 284,596 people living within the city of Brașov, making it the 8th most populated city in Romania....	”Vlad Ţepeş Organisation”
Vrancea Vrancea Vrancea may refer to:* Vrancea County, Romania* Vrancea Mountains, Romania* Vrancea, a village in Burila Mare Commune, Mehedinţi County...	Vrancea group (brothers Paragina); Militaru Gheorghe; “Vlad Ţepeş Organisation”; (Lupşa Victor); Acft. Capt. Mândrişteanu
Bârlad Bârlad Bârlad is a city in Vaslui County, Romania. It lies on the banks of the Bârlad River, which waters the high plains of eastern Moldavia....	Constantin Dan
Northern Făgăraş Mountains Fagaras Mountains Făgăraș Mountains , are the highest mountains of the Southern Carpathians, in Romania. The highest peaks are Moldoveanu , Negoiu , Viștea Mare , Lespezi , Vânătoarea lui Buteanu , and Dara .They are bordered in the north by the Făgăraș Depression, through which the Olt river flows, and in the west...	Dumitru (Ionele Ion); Făină Faina Faina is a small town and municipality in central-west Goiás state, Brazil. The population was 6,918 in a total area of 1,944.9 km².-Location and Connections:... ; Cândea Ion; Carpatin Făgărăşan Group(Gavrilă-Ogoranu Ion)
Southern Făgăraş Mountains	Col. Arsenescu Gheorghe Gheorghe Arsenescu Gheorghe Arsenescu , was a Romanian army officer who led an anti-communist resistance movement in post-World War II Romania. He was born in Câmpulung.... ; Haiduks of Muscel (brothers Petru and Toma Arnăuţoiu); Apostol
Gorj	Capt. Brâncuşi Mihai
Vâlcea	Pele Gheorghe; Secu Şerban; Jijie Ion
Craiova Craiova Craiova , Romania's 6th largest city and capital of Dolj County, is situated near the east bank of the river Jiu in central Oltenia. It is a longstanding political center, and is located at approximately equal distances from the Southern Carpathians and the River Danube . Craiova is the chief...	Gen. Carlaonţ Ion; Dumitraşcu Marin
Dobrogea Dobruja Dobruja is a historical region shared by Bulgaria and Romania, located between the lower Danube river and the Black Sea, including the Danube Delta, Romanian coast and the northernmost part of the Bulgarian coast...	Fudulea Gheorghe; brothers Croitoru; Gogu Puiu; Ciolacu Nicolae; Trocan Niculae; Dobroges’s Haiducs

Rather than a planned action, the resistance movement was a spontaneous reaction in response to the wave of terror initiated by the authorities after the seizure of power in early 1948. The spontaneous nature of the movement explains its marked fragmentation and the lack of coordination between the resistance groups. However, acting isolated and on a local basis conferred the groups a multiformity and flexibility which rendered the annihilation of the entire movement more difficult, and ensured a remarkable staying power for some groups. Furthermore, in some areas a notable reproducibility occurred, exterminated groups being replaced by new cores of resistance.

A characteristic trait of the movement was its defensive nature. Indeed, few offensive actions such as sabotages or occupation of localities have been recorded. While the groups did not pose a major material threat to the authorities, their dangerousness for the regime resided in the symbol they represented: as long as the resisters remained free, they created a tangible challenge to the regime’s claim of exercising total control over the country.

Repression

Adriana Georgescu Cosmovici was one of the first people to be arrested for belonging to the resistance movement. In July 1945, the 28-year old woman was arrested in Bucharest

Bucharest

Bucharest is the capital municipality, cultural, industrial, and financial centre of Romania. It is the largest city in Romania, located in the southeast of the country, at , and lies on the banks of the Dâmbovița River....

, and severely beaten by the secret police

Secret police

Secret police are a police agency which operates in secrecy and beyond the law to protect the political power of an individual dictator or an authoritarian political regime....

investigators. In a statement made in Paris

Paris

Paris is the capital and largest city in France, situated on the river Seine, in northern France, at the heart of the Île-de-France region...

in 1949, she named three investigators as having threatened her with guns, one of them being Alexandru Nicolschi

Alexandru Nicolschi

Alexandru Nicolschi was a Romanian communist activist, Soviet agent and officer, and Securitate chief under the Communist regime...

. According to a 1992 article for Cuvântul
Cuvântul (literary magazine)
Cuvântul is a literary and political monthly, published in Bucharest, Romania. Tracing its origins back to 1990, it was successively edited by various figures in contemporary Romanian literature, among them Ioan T. Morar, Ioan Buduca, Radu G. Ţeposu and Mircea Martin...

, Nicolschi ordered the murder of seven prisoners (allegedly the leaders of an anti-communist resistance movement) in transit from Gherla

Gherla

Gherla is a city in Cluj County, Romania . It is located 45 km from Cluj-Napoca on the Someşul Mic River, and has a population of 24,083....

prison in July 1949.

Elisabeta Rizea

Elisabeta Rizea

Elisabeta Rizea was a Romanian anti-communist partisan in the Făgăraş Mountains of Northern Wallachia. After the Romanian Revolution of 1989, she became the symbol of Romania's anti-communist resistance....

and her husband, two peasants opposed to the government's policy of forced collectivization, joined the guerrilla group "Haiducii Muscelului" led by Colonel Gheorghe Arsenescu

Gheorghe Arsenescu

Gheorghe Arsenescu , was a Romanian army officer who led an anti-communist resistance movement in post-World War II Romania. He was born in Câmpulung....

, providing food and supplies. Caught in 1952, she served 12 years in prison, during which time she was subjected to torture

Torture

Torture is the act of inflicting severe pain as a means of punishment, revenge, forcing information or a confession, or simply as an act of cruelty. Throughout history, torture has often been used as a method of political re-education, interrogation, punishment, and coercion...

.

On 18 July 1958, Vasile Motrescu was executed. In 1959, 80 people led by Vasile Blǎnaru were judged for "armed insurrection" in the area of Câmpulung Muscel.

The implacable chase of the authorities on the resisters as well as the gag order on the existence of the resistance show how concerned the regime was, that the symbol of political insubordination might become contagious. Iron Guard

Iron Guard

sympathizer Gavrilă-Ogoranu reports the words allegedly addressed to mountain wanderers by a resister in the 1950s: “Tell everyone that there is still a place in the Kingdom of Romania

Kingdom of Romania

The Kingdom of Romania was the Romanian state based on a form of parliamentary monarchy between 13 March 1881 and 30 December 1947, specified by the first three Constitutions of Romania...

which has not bowed to Communism. As long as our heads are on our shoulders, this corner of the country will be free. Tell the people not to lose faith, for the day will come when the whole of Romania will be free. Pray God for it, so help us God.”

External links

Georges Diener, "Résistance Paysanne et Maquis en Roumanie de 1945 à 1965 - La résistance paysanne à la collectivisation" , http://canord.presidency.ro/OUG.103_2000.pdf
Genèses - Sciences sociales et histoireno, no. 43, 2001/2
Toma Arnautoiu - The anti-communist partisans of Nucsoara - Biography, photos, documents about Toma Arnautoiu.

The source of this article is wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. The text of this article is licensed under the GFDL.

Preliminaries

Onset of the armed resistance movement

Resistance groups

Structure and function

List of major resistance groups

Repression

See also

Anti-totalitarian resistances in other countries

External links