Protocooperation
Encyclopedia
Protocooperation is where two species
interact with each other beneficially; they have no need to interact with each other they interact purely for the gain that they receive from doing this. It is not at all necessary for protocooperation to occur; growth and survival is possible in the absence of the interaction. The interaction that occurs can be between different kingdoms
.
bacteria
or fungi, and the plants that occur growing in the soil. None of the species rely on the relationship for survival, but all of the fungi, bacteria and higher plants take part in shaping soil composition and fertility. Soil bacteria and fungi interrelate with each other, forming nutrients essential to the plants survival. The plants obtain nutrients from root nodules and decomposing organic substance. Plants benefit by getting essential mineral nutrients and carbon dioxide
.
s and aphid
s. The ant searches for food on trees and shrubs that are hosts to honeydew
-secreting species such as aphids, mealybug
s, and some scales
. The ant gathers the sugary substance and takes it to its nest as food for its offspring. It has been known for the ant to stimulate the aphid to secrete honeydew straight into its mouth. Some ant species even look after the honeydew producers from natural predators. In areas where the ant inhabits the same ecosystem as the plant the plants normally suffer from a higher presence of aphids which is detrimental to the plant but not to the two species protocooperating.
s of plant
s that are pollinated by insects and birds benefit from protocooperation. The plants, particularly those with large bright colourful flowers bearing nectar glands, experience cross pollination because of the insects activities. This is beneficial to the insect that has got the food supply of pollen and nectar required for its survival.
s. The Egyptian plover
removes insect pests from the backs of buffalo
, antelope
, giraffe
s, and rhino
s. The cattle egret
in America as well does the same task of removing the unwanted insects and parasites.
perform the task of cleaning other fish, by removing ectoparasites, cleaning wounded flesh, and getting rid of dead flesh. Even predatory fish rely on cleansing symbionts, and adopt a placid state while they are cleansed. The fish that do the cleansing are often concentrated around specific sites where the other fish come to be cleansed these are known as cleansing stations.
Species
In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this definition is adequate, more precise or differing measures are...
interact with each other beneficially; they have no need to interact with each other they interact purely for the gain that they receive from doing this. It is not at all necessary for protocooperation to occur; growth and survival is possible in the absence of the interaction. The interaction that occurs can be between different kingdoms
Kingdom (biology)
In biology, kingdom is a taxonomic rank, which is either the highest rank or in the more recent three-domain system, the rank below domain. Kingdoms are divided into smaller groups called phyla or divisions in botany...
.
Mutualism
Protocooperation is a form of mutualism, but they do not depend on each other for survival. An example of protocooperation happens between soilSoil
Soil is a natural body consisting of layers of mineral constituents of variable thicknesses, which differ from the parent materials in their morphological, physical, chemical, and mineralogical characteristics...
bacteria
Bacteria
Bacteria are a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a wide range of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals...
or fungi, and the plants that occur growing in the soil. None of the species rely on the relationship for survival, but all of the fungi, bacteria and higher plants take part in shaping soil composition and fertility. Soil bacteria and fungi interrelate with each other, forming nutrients essential to the plants survival. The plants obtain nutrients from root nodules and decomposing organic substance. Plants benefit by getting essential mineral nutrients and carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a naturally occurring chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom...
.
Ants and aphids
A further example of protocooperation is the connection between antAnt
Ants are social insects of the family Formicidae and, along with the related wasps and bees, belong to the order Hymenoptera. Ants evolved from wasp-like ancestors in the mid-Cretaceous period between 110 and 130 million years ago and diversified after the rise of flowering plants. More than...
s and aphid
Aphid
Aphids, also known as plant lice and in Britain and the Commonwealth as greenflies, blackflies or whiteflies, are small sap sucking insects, and members of the superfamily Aphidoidea. Aphids are among the most destructive insect pests on cultivated plants in temperate regions...
s. The ant searches for food on trees and shrubs that are hosts to honeydew
Honeydew (secretion)
Honeydew is a sugar-rich sticky liquid, secreted by aphids and some scale insects as they feed on plant sap. When their mouthpart penetrates the phloem, the sugary, high-pressure liquid is forced out of the gut's terminal opening. Honeydew is particularly common as a secretion in the Hemipteran...
-secreting species such as aphids, mealybug
Mealybug
Mealybugs are insects in the family Pseudococcidae, unarmored scale insects found in moist, warm climates. They are considered pests as they feed on plant juices of greenhouse plants, house plants and subtropical trees and also acts as a vector for several plant diseases.-Distribution:Mealybugs...
s, and some scales
Scale insect
The scale insects are small insects of the order Hemiptera, generally classified as the superfamily Coccoidea. There are about 8,000 species of scale insects.-Ecology:...
. The ant gathers the sugary substance and takes it to its nest as food for its offspring. It has been known for the ant to stimulate the aphid to secrete honeydew straight into its mouth. Some ant species even look after the honeydew producers from natural predators. In areas where the ant inhabits the same ecosystem as the plant the plants normally suffer from a higher presence of aphids which is detrimental to the plant but not to the two species protocooperating.
Flowers and insects
The flowerFlower
A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants . The biological function of a flower is to effect reproduction, usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs...
s of plant
Plant
Plants are living organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Precise definitions of the kingdom vary, but as the term is used here, plants include familiar organisms such as trees, flowers, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae. The group is also called green plants or...
s that are pollinated by insects and birds benefit from protocooperation. The plants, particularly those with large bright colourful flowers bearing nectar glands, experience cross pollination because of the insects activities. This is beneficial to the insect that has got the food supply of pollen and nectar required for its survival.
Birds
Protocooperation can occur in birdBird
Birds are feathered, winged, bipedal, endothermic , egg-laying, vertebrate animals. Around 10,000 living species and 188 families makes them the most speciose class of tetrapod vertebrates. They inhabit ecosystems across the globe, from the Arctic to the Antarctic. Extant birds range in size from...
s. The Egyptian plover
Egyptian Plover
The Egyptian Plover is a wader, the only member of the genus Pluvianus. Formerly placed in the pratincole and courser family, Glareolidae, it is now regarded as the sole member of its own monotypic family Pluvianidae....
removes insect pests from the backs of buffalo
African Buffalo
The African buffalo, affalo, nyati, Mbogo or Cape buffalo is a large African bovine. It is not closely related to the slightly larger wild Asian water buffalo, but its ancestry remains unclear...
, antelope
Antelope
Antelope is a term referring to many even-toed ungulate species indigenous to various regions in Africa and Eurasia. Antelopes comprise a miscellaneous group within the family Bovidae, encompassing those old-world species that are neither cattle, sheep, buffalo, bison, nor goats...
, giraffe
Giraffe
The giraffe is an African even-toed ungulate mammal, the tallest of all extant land-living animal species, and the largest ruminant...
s, and rhino
Rhinoceros
Rhinoceros , also known as rhino, is a group of five extant species of odd-toed ungulates in the family Rhinocerotidae. Two of these species are native to Africa and three to southern Asia....
s. The cattle egret
Cattle Egret
The Cattle Egret is a cosmopolitan species of heron found in the tropics, subtropics and warm temperate zones. It is the only member of the monotypic genus Bubulcus, although some authorities regard its two subspecies as full species, the Western Cattle Egret and the Eastern Cattle Egret...
in America as well does the same task of removing the unwanted insects and parasites.
Fish
Certain fishFish
Fish are a paraphyletic group of organisms that consist of all gill-bearing aquatic vertebrate animals that lack limbs with digits. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous and bony fish, as well as various extinct related groups...
perform the task of cleaning other fish, by removing ectoparasites, cleaning wounded flesh, and getting rid of dead flesh. Even predatory fish rely on cleansing symbionts, and adopt a placid state while they are cleansed. The fish that do the cleansing are often concentrated around specific sites where the other fish come to be cleansed these are known as cleansing stations.