Petronius Maximus
Encyclopedia
Flavius Petronius Maximus (possibly Flavius Anicius Petronius Maximus) (c. 396 – 31 May 455) was Western Roman Emperor for two and a half months in 455. A wealthy senator
and a prominent aristocrat, he was instrumental in the murders of the Western Roman magister militum
, Flavius Aëtius
, and the Western Roman Emperor Valentinian III
. Maximus was killed during the events that culminated in the Vandal sack of Rome
in 455.
family. Related to later Emperor Olybrius
, Maximus was the son of Anicius Probinus
, the son of Anicia Faltonia Proba and Sextus Claudius Petronius Probus
, who was Prefect
of Illyricum
in 364, Prefect
of Gaul
in 366, Prefect
of Italy
in 368–375 and again in 383 and consul
in 371.
Maximus achieved a remarkable career early on in his life. His earliest known office was praetor
, held about 411; around 415 he served as a tribunus et notarius
, which was an entry position to the imperial bureaucracy, and led to his serving as Comes
sacrarum largitionum (Count of the Sacred Largess) between 416 and 419.
From January/February 420 to August/September 421 he was praefectus urbi
of Rome, an office he held a second time sometime before 439; as praefectus he restored the Old St. Peter's Basilica. He was also appointed praetorian prefect
sometime between 421 and 439; it was either during his holding of this post, or during his second urban prefecture, that he was appointed consul
for the year 433.
From August 439 to February 441 he held the praetorian prefecture of Italy
, then a second consulship in 443. Between 443 (the year of his fourth prefecture and second consulship) and 445 (the year he was granted the title of Patrician) Maximus built a forum in Rome, on the Caelian Hill
between via Labicana
and the Basilica di San Clemente
. During this year, he was briefly the most honored of all non-Imperial Romans, until the third consulate of Flavius Aëtius
, generalissimo of the Western empire, the following year.
It is clear that the enmity between Petronius Maximus and the powerful Patricius and magister militum
of the West Aëtius led to the events that gradually brought down the Western Roman Empire. Initially however, the principal beneficiary of this was Maximus, who came to the throne as a result of two murders, firstly that of Aëtius in 454, followed by that of the Western Roman Emperor Valentinian III
on 16 March 455.
, Maximus poisoned the mind of the emperor against Aëtius, resulting in the murder of his rival at the hands of Valentinian III. John’s account has it that Valentinian and Maximus placed a wager on a game that Maximus ended up losing. As he did not have the money available, Maximus left his ring as a guarantee of his debt. Valentinian then used the ring to summon to court Lucina, the chaste and beautiful wife of Maximus, whom Valentinian had long lusted after. Lucina went to the court, believing she had been summoned by her husband, but instead found herself at dinner with Valentinian. Although initially resisting his advances, the emperor managed to wear her down and succeeded in raping her. Returning home and meeting Maximus, she accused him of betrayal, believing that he had handed her over to the emperor. Although Maximus swore revenge, he was equally motivated by ambition to supplant 'a detested and despicable rival', and so he decided to move against Valentinian.
According to John of Antioch, Maximus was acutely aware that while Aëtius was alive he could not exact vengeance on Valentinian, and so Aëtius had to be removed. He therefore allied himself with a eunuch
of Valentinian's, the primicerius sacri cubiculi Heraclius
, who had long opposed the general with the hope of exercising more power over the emperor. The two of them convinced Valentinian that Aëtius was planning to assassinate him, and spurred the emperor to kill his magister militum during a meeting, which Valentinian did with his own hands, with the help of Heraclius, on September 21, 454.
Once Aëtius was dead, Maximus asked Valentinian to be appointed in his place, but the Emperor refused; Heraclius, in fact, had advised the emperor not to allow anyone to possess the power that Aëtius had wielded. According to John of Antioch, Maximus was so irritated by Valentinian’s refusal to appoint him as his magister militum that he decided to have Valentinian assassinated as well. He chose as accomplices Optilia and Thraustila, two Scythians who had fought under the command of Aetius and who, after the death of their general, had been appointed as Valentinian’s escort. Maximus easily convinced them that Valentinian was the only one responsible for the death of Aetius, and that the two soldiers must avenge their old commander, while at the same time also promising them a reward for the betrayal of the emperor. On March 16, 455 Valentinian, who was in Rome
, went to Campus Martius
with some guards, accompanied by Optilia, Thraustila and their men. As soon as the emperor dismounted to practise with the bow, Optilia came up with his men and hit him in the temple. As Valentinian turned to look at his attackers, Optilia killed him. At the same moment, Thraustila killed Heraclius. The two Scythians took the imperial crown and robe and brought them to Maximus.
The sudden and violent death of Valentinian III left the Western Roman Empire
without an obvious successor to the throne, with several candidates supported by various groups of the imperial bureaucracy and the military. In particular, the army’s support was split between three main candidates: Maximianus, the former domesticus
("bodyguard") of Aëtius, who was the son of an Egyptian merchant named Domninus who had become rich in Italy; the future emperor Majorian
, who commanded the army after the death of Aetius and who had the backing of the Empress Licinia Eudoxia
; and Maximus himself, who had the support of the Roman Senate
and who in the end, on 17 March, defeated his rivals and secured the throne by distributing money to officials of the imperial palace.
, the widow of Valentinian III
. She only married him reluctantly, suspecting that in fact he had been involved in the murder of her late husband; and indeed Maximus treated Valentinian III's assassins with considerable favour. The eastern court at Constantinople
refused to recognise his accession, so to further secure his position, Maximus quickly appointed Avitus
as Master of Soldiers, and sent him on a mission to Toulouse
to gain the support of the Visigoths. He also proceeded to cancel the betrothal of Licinia’s daughter, Eudocia, to Huneric
, the son of the Vandal king Geiseric. This infuriated the Vandal king, who only needed the excuse of Licinia’s despairing appeal to the Vandal court for help to begin preparations for the invasion of Italy.
However by May, within two months of gaining the throne, news reached Rome that Geiseric was sailing for Italy. As the news spread, panic gripped the city and many of its inhabitants took to flight. The emperor, aware that Avitus had not yet returned with the expected Visigothic aid, decided that it was fruitless to mount a defence against the Vandals, and so attempted to organize his escape, urging the senate to accompany him. However, in the panic, Petronius Maximus was completely abandoned by his bodyguard and entourage and left to fend for himself.
As he rode out of the city on his own on May 31, 455, he was set upon by an angry mob who stoned him to death. His body was mutilated and flung into the Tiber. He had reigned for only seventy eight days.
His son from his first marriage, Palladius
, who had held the title of Caesar
between March 17 and May 31, and who had married his stepsister Eudocia, was probably executed.
On June 2, 455, three days after Maximus’death, Geiseric captured the city of Rome and thoroughly sacked it for two weeks. In response to the pleas of Pope Leo I
, they desisted from more destructive behavior that accompanied a sack of a city – arson
, torture, and murder. Nevertheless he eventually left, carrying away a great amount of loot as well as the empress Licinia Eudoxia and her daughters Placidia
and Eudocia. Eudocia married Huneric in 456 as had been originally intended.
Roman Senate
The Senate of the Roman Republic was a political institution in the ancient Roman Republic, however, it was not an elected body, but one whose members were appointed by the consuls, and later by the censors. After a magistrate served his term in office, it usually was followed with automatic...
and a prominent aristocrat, he was instrumental in the murders of the Western Roman magister militum
Magister militum
Magister militum was a top-level military command used in the later Roman Empire, dating from the reign of Constantine. Used alone, the term referred to the senior military officer of the Empire...
, Flavius Aëtius
Flavius Aëtius
Flavius Aëtius , dux et patricius, was a Roman general of the closing period of the Western Roman Empire. He was an able military commander and the most influential man in the Western Roman Empire for two decades . He managed policy in regard to the attacks of barbarian peoples pressing on the Empire...
, and the Western Roman Emperor Valentinian III
Valentinian III
-Family:Valentinian was born in the western capital of Ravenna, the only son of Galla Placidia and Flavius Constantius. The former was the younger half-sister of the western emperor Honorius, and the latter was at the time Patrician and the power behind the throne....
. Maximus was killed during the events that culminated in the Vandal sack of Rome
Sack of Rome (455)
The sack of 455 was the second of three barbarian sacks of Rome; it was executed by the Vandals, who were then at war with the usurping Western Roman Emperor Petronius Maximus....
in 455.
Early career
Petronius Maximus was born in about 396. Although he was of obscure origin, it is now believed that he belonged to the AniciiAnicia (gens)
The gens Anicia was a plebeian family at Rome, mentioned first towards the end of the 4th century BC The first of the Anicii under to achieve prominence under the Republic was Lucius Anicius Gallus, who conducted the war against the Illyrii during the Third Macedonian War, in 168 BC.A noble family...
family. Related to later Emperor Olybrius
Olybrius
Anicius Olybrius was Western Roman Emperor from April or May 472 to his death. He was in reality a puppet ruler, put on the throne by the Roman general of Germanic descent Ricimer, and was mainly interested in religion, while the actual power was held by Ricimer and his nephew Gundobad.-Family and...
, Maximus was the son of Anicius Probinus
Anicius Probinus
Flavius Anicius Probinus was a politician and aristocrat of the Roman Empire.- Biography :A member of the noble gens Anicia, Probinus was the son of Sextus Claudius Petronius Probus, one of the most influential men of his era and consul in 371, and of Anicia Faltonia Proba; he was then the brother...
, the son of Anicia Faltonia Proba and Sextus Claudius Petronius Probus
Sextus Claudius Petronius Probus
Sextus Claudius Petronius Probus was a leading Roman aristocrat of the later 4th century, renowned for his wealth, power and social connections.-Family:...
, who was Prefect
Prefect
Prefect is a magisterial title of varying definition....
of Illyricum
Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum
The praetorian prefecture of Illyricum was one of four praetorian prefectures into which the Late Roman Empire was divided.The administrative centre of the prefecture was Sirmium , and, after 379, Thessalonica...
in 364, Prefect
Prefect
Prefect is a magisterial title of varying definition....
of Gaul
Gaul
Gaul was a region of Western Europe during the Iron Age and Roman era, encompassing present day France, Luxembourg and Belgium, most of Switzerland, the western part of Northern Italy, as well as the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the left bank of the Rhine. The Gauls were the speakers of...
in 366, Prefect
Prefect
Prefect is a magisterial title of varying definition....
of Italy
Italia (Roman province)
Italia was the name of the Italian peninsula of the Roman Empire.-Under the Republic and Augustan organization:During the Republic and the first centuries of the empire, Italia was not a province, but rather the territory of the city of Rome, thus having a special status: for example, military...
in 368–375 and again in 383 and consul
Roman consul
A consul served in the highest elected political office of the Roman Republic.Each year, two consuls were elected together, to serve for a one-year term. Each consul was given veto power over his colleague and the officials would alternate each month...
in 371.
Maximus achieved a remarkable career early on in his life. His earliest known office was praetor
Praetor
Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities: the commander of an army, usually in the field, or the named commander before mustering the army; and an elected magistratus assigned varied duties...
, held about 411; around 415 he served as a tribunus et notarius
Notarius
A notarius is a public secretary who is appointed by competent authority to draw up official or authentic documents . In the Roman Catholic Church there have been apostolic notaries and even episcopal notaries...
, which was an entry position to the imperial bureaucracy, and led to his serving as Comes
Comes
Comes , plural comites , is the Latin word for companion, either individually or as a member of a collective known as comitatus, especially the suite of a magnate, in some cases large and/or formal enough to have a specific name, such as a cohors amicorum. The word comes derives from com- "with" +...
sacrarum largitionum (Count of the Sacred Largess) between 416 and 419.
From January/February 420 to August/September 421 he was praefectus urbi
Praefectus urbi
The praefectus urbanus or praefectus urbi, in English the urban prefect, was prefect of the city of Rome, and later also of Constantinople. The office originated under the Roman kings, continued during the Republic and Empire, and held high importance in late Antiquity...
of Rome, an office he held a second time sometime before 439; as praefectus he restored the Old St. Peter's Basilica. He was also appointed praetorian prefect
Praetorian prefect
Praetorian prefect was the title of a high office in the Roman Empire. Originating as the commander of the Praetorian Guard, the office gradually acquired extensive legal and administrative functions, with its holders becoming the Emperor's chief aides...
sometime between 421 and 439; it was either during his holding of this post, or during his second urban prefecture, that he was appointed consul
Roman consul
A consul served in the highest elected political office of the Roman Republic.Each year, two consuls were elected together, to serve for a one-year term. Each consul was given veto power over his colleague and the officials would alternate each month...
for the year 433.
From August 439 to February 441 he held the praetorian prefecture of Italy
Praetorian prefecture of Italy
The praetorian prefecture of Italy ) was one of four large Praetorian prefectures into which the Late Roman Empire was divided. It comprised the Italian peninsula, the Western Balkans, the Danubian provinces and parts of North Africa...
, then a second consulship in 443. Between 443 (the year of his fourth prefecture and second consulship) and 445 (the year he was granted the title of Patrician) Maximus built a forum in Rome, on the Caelian Hill
Caelian Hill
The Caelian Hill is one of the famous Seven Hills of Rome. Under reign of Tullus Hostilius, the entire population of Alba Longa was forcibly resettled on the Caelian Hill...
between via Labicana
Via Labicana
The Via Labicana was an ancient road of Italy, leading east southeast from Rome. It seems possible that the road at first led to Tusculum, that it was then extended to Labici, and later still became a road for through traffic; it may even have superseded the Via Latina as a route to the southeast,...
and the Basilica di San Clemente
Basilica di San Clemente
The Basilica of Saint Clement is a Roman Catholic minor basilica dedicated to Pope Clement I located in Rome, Italy. Archaeologically speaking, the structure is a three-tiered complex of buildings: the present basilica built just before the year 1100 during the height of the Middle Ages; beneath...
. During this year, he was briefly the most honored of all non-Imperial Romans, until the third consulate of Flavius Aëtius
Flavius Aëtius
Flavius Aëtius , dux et patricius, was a Roman general of the closing period of the Western Roman Empire. He was an able military commander and the most influential man in the Western Roman Empire for two decades . He managed policy in regard to the attacks of barbarian peoples pressing on the Empire...
, generalissimo of the Western empire, the following year.
It is clear that the enmity between Petronius Maximus and the powerful Patricius and magister militum
Magister militum
Magister militum was a top-level military command used in the later Roman Empire, dating from the reign of Constantine. Used alone, the term referred to the senior military officer of the Empire...
of the West Aëtius led to the events that gradually brought down the Western Roman Empire. Initially however, the principal beneficiary of this was Maximus, who came to the throne as a result of two murders, firstly that of Aëtius in 454, followed by that of the Western Roman Emperor Valentinian III
Valentinian III
-Family:Valentinian was born in the western capital of Ravenna, the only son of Galla Placidia and Flavius Constantius. The former was the younger half-sister of the western emperor Honorius, and the latter was at the time Patrician and the power behind the throne....
on 16 March 455.
Murder of Valentinian III and accession of Maximus
According to the historian John of AntiochJohn of Antioch (chronicler)
John of Antioch was chronicler in the 7th century. He was a monk, apparently contemporary with Emperor Heraclius . Gelzer identifies the author with the Monophysite Patriarch John of Antioch, who ruled from 630 to 648.John of Antioch's chronicle, Historia chronike, is a universal history...
, Maximus poisoned the mind of the emperor against Aëtius, resulting in the murder of his rival at the hands of Valentinian III. John’s account has it that Valentinian and Maximus placed a wager on a game that Maximus ended up losing. As he did not have the money available, Maximus left his ring as a guarantee of his debt. Valentinian then used the ring to summon to court Lucina, the chaste and beautiful wife of Maximus, whom Valentinian had long lusted after. Lucina went to the court, believing she had been summoned by her husband, but instead found herself at dinner with Valentinian. Although initially resisting his advances, the emperor managed to wear her down and succeeded in raping her. Returning home and meeting Maximus, she accused him of betrayal, believing that he had handed her over to the emperor. Although Maximus swore revenge, he was equally motivated by ambition to supplant 'a detested and despicable rival', and so he decided to move against Valentinian.
According to John of Antioch, Maximus was acutely aware that while Aëtius was alive he could not exact vengeance on Valentinian, and so Aëtius had to be removed. He therefore allied himself with a eunuch
Eunuch
A eunuch is a person born male most commonly castrated, typically early enough in his life for this change to have major hormonal consequences...
of Valentinian's, the primicerius sacri cubiculi Heraclius
Heraclius (primicerius sacri cubiculi)
Heraclius was an influential eunuch of the Western Roman Emperor Valentinian III.- Biography :Heraclius was an eunuch and the primicerius sacri cubiculi of the Western Roman Emperor Valentinian III, on whom he had a great influence....
, who had long opposed the general with the hope of exercising more power over the emperor. The two of them convinced Valentinian that Aëtius was planning to assassinate him, and spurred the emperor to kill his magister militum during a meeting, which Valentinian did with his own hands, with the help of Heraclius, on September 21, 454.
Once Aëtius was dead, Maximus asked Valentinian to be appointed in his place, but the Emperor refused; Heraclius, in fact, had advised the emperor not to allow anyone to possess the power that Aëtius had wielded. According to John of Antioch, Maximus was so irritated by Valentinian’s refusal to appoint him as his magister militum that he decided to have Valentinian assassinated as well. He chose as accomplices Optilia and Thraustila, two Scythians who had fought under the command of Aetius and who, after the death of their general, had been appointed as Valentinian’s escort. Maximus easily convinced them that Valentinian was the only one responsible for the death of Aetius, and that the two soldiers must avenge their old commander, while at the same time also promising them a reward for the betrayal of the emperor. On March 16, 455 Valentinian, who was in Rome
Rome
Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...
, went to Campus Martius
Campus Martius
The Campus Martius , was a publicly owned area of ancient Rome about in extent. In the Middle Ages, it was the most populous area of Rome...
with some guards, accompanied by Optilia, Thraustila and their men. As soon as the emperor dismounted to practise with the bow, Optilia came up with his men and hit him in the temple. As Valentinian turned to look at his attackers, Optilia killed him. At the same moment, Thraustila killed Heraclius. The two Scythians took the imperial crown and robe and brought them to Maximus.
The sudden and violent death of Valentinian III left the Western Roman Empire
Western Roman Empire
The Western Roman Empire was the western half of the Roman Empire after its division by Diocletian in 285; the other half of the Roman Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire, commonly referred to today as the Byzantine Empire....
without an obvious successor to the throne, with several candidates supported by various groups of the imperial bureaucracy and the military. In particular, the army’s support was split between three main candidates: Maximianus, the former domesticus
Domesticus (Roman Empire)
A domesticus was a member of the protectores domestici, an elite guard unit of the Late Roman army, who served as bodyguards and staff officers to the emperor. As its name testifies, these were troops considered as belonging to the household of the emperor...
("bodyguard") of Aëtius, who was the son of an Egyptian merchant named Domninus who had become rich in Italy; the future emperor Majorian
Majorian
Majorian , was the Western Roman Emperor from 457 to 461.A prominent general of the Late Roman army, Majorian deposed Emperor Avitus in 457 and succeeded him. Majorian was one of the last emperors to make a concerted effort to restore the Western Roman Empire...
, who commanded the army after the death of Aetius and who had the backing of the Empress Licinia Eudoxia
Licinia Eudoxia
Licinia Eudoxia was a Roman Empress, daughter of Eastern Emperor Theodosius II and wife of the Western Emperors Valentinian III and Petronius Maximus.- Family :...
; and Maximus himself, who had the support of the Roman Senate
Roman Senate
The Senate of the Roman Republic was a political institution in the ancient Roman Republic, however, it was not an elected body, but one whose members were appointed by the consuls, and later by the censors. After a magistrate served his term in office, it usually was followed with automatic...
and who in the end, on 17 March, defeated his rivals and secured the throne by distributing money to officials of the imperial palace.
Reign and death
After gaining control of the palace, Maximus consolidated his hold on power by immediately marrying Licinia EudoxiaLicinia Eudoxia
Licinia Eudoxia was a Roman Empress, daughter of Eastern Emperor Theodosius II and wife of the Western Emperors Valentinian III and Petronius Maximus.- Family :...
, the widow of Valentinian III
Valentinian III
-Family:Valentinian was born in the western capital of Ravenna, the only son of Galla Placidia and Flavius Constantius. The former was the younger half-sister of the western emperor Honorius, and the latter was at the time Patrician and the power behind the throne....
. She only married him reluctantly, suspecting that in fact he had been involved in the murder of her late husband; and indeed Maximus treated Valentinian III's assassins with considerable favour. The eastern court at Constantinople
Constantinople
Constantinople was the capital of the Roman, Eastern Roman, Byzantine, Latin, and Ottoman Empires. Throughout most of the Middle Ages, Constantinople was Europe's largest and wealthiest city.-Names:...
refused to recognise his accession, so to further secure his position, Maximus quickly appointed Avitus
Avitus
Eparchius Avitus was Western Roman Emperor from July 8 or July 9, 455 to October 17, 456. A Gallic-Roman aristocrat, he was a senator and a high-ranking officer both in the civil and military administration, as well as Bishop of Piacenza.A representative of the Gallic-Roman aristocracy, he...
as Master of Soldiers, and sent him on a mission to Toulouse
Toulouse
Toulouse is a city in the Haute-Garonne department in southwestern FranceIt lies on the banks of the River Garonne, 590 km away from Paris and half-way between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea...
to gain the support of the Visigoths. He also proceeded to cancel the betrothal of Licinia’s daughter, Eudocia, to Huneric
Huneric
Huneric or Honeric was King of the Vandals and the oldest son of Genseric. He dropped the imperial politics of his father and concentrated mainly on internal affairs. He was married to Eudocia, daughter of western Roman Emperor Valentinian III and Licinia Eudoxia. She left him, probably in 472...
, the son of the Vandal king Geiseric. This infuriated the Vandal king, who only needed the excuse of Licinia’s despairing appeal to the Vandal court for help to begin preparations for the invasion of Italy.
However by May, within two months of gaining the throne, news reached Rome that Geiseric was sailing for Italy. As the news spread, panic gripped the city and many of its inhabitants took to flight. The emperor, aware that Avitus had not yet returned with the expected Visigothic aid, decided that it was fruitless to mount a defence against the Vandals, and so attempted to organize his escape, urging the senate to accompany him. However, in the panic, Petronius Maximus was completely abandoned by his bodyguard and entourage and left to fend for himself.
As he rode out of the city on his own on May 31, 455, he was set upon by an angry mob who stoned him to death. His body was mutilated and flung into the Tiber. He had reigned for only seventy eight days.
His son from his first marriage, Palladius
Palladius (Caesar)
Palladius was Caesar of the Western Roman Empire for two months in 455, together with his father Petronius Maximus.- Biography :...
, who had held the title of Caesar
Caesar (title)
Caesar is a title of imperial character. It derives from the cognomen of Julius Caesar, the Roman dictator...
between March 17 and May 31, and who had married his stepsister Eudocia, was probably executed.
On June 2, 455, three days after Maximus’death, Geiseric captured the city of Rome and thoroughly sacked it for two weeks. In response to the pleas of Pope Leo I
Pope Leo I
Pope Leo I was pope from September 29, 440 to his death.He was an Italian aristocrat, and is the first pope of the Catholic Church to have been called "the Great". He is perhaps best known for having met Attila the Hun in 452, persuading him to turn back from his invasion of Italy...
, they desisted from more destructive behavior that accompanied a sack of a city – arson
Arson
Arson is the crime of intentionally or maliciously setting fire to structures or wildland areas. It may be distinguished from other causes such as spontaneous combustion and natural wildfires...
, torture, and murder. Nevertheless he eventually left, carrying away a great amount of loot as well as the empress Licinia Eudoxia and her daughters Placidia
Placidia
Placidia was the wife of Olybrius, Western Roman Emperor. Her full name is uncertain. The Chronicle of the Roman Emperors: The reign by reign record of the rulers of Imperial Rome by Chris Scarre gives her name as Galla Placidia Valentiniana or Galla Placidia the Younger, based on Roman naming...
and Eudocia. Eudocia married Huneric in 456 as had been originally intended.
Sources
- Jones, Arnold Hugh MartinArnold Hugh Martin JonesArnold Hugh Martin Jones — known as A.H.M. Jones — was a prominent 20th century British historian of classical antiquity, particularly of the later Roman Empire.-Biography:...
, John Robert Martindale, John MorrisJohn Morris (historian)John Robert Morris was an English historian who specialised in the study of the institutions of the Roman Empire and the history of Sub-Roman Britain...
, The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, volume 2, Cambridge University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-521-20159-4 - Averil Cameron, Bryan Ward-Perkins and Michael Whitby. The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 14: Late Antiquity: Empire and Successors, A.D. 425–600. Cambridge University Press, 2000.
- Drinkwater, John, and Hugh Elton, Fifth-Century Gaul: A Crisis of Identity?, Cambridge University Press, 2002, ISBN 0521529336
- http://www.roman-emperors.org/petmax.htm Mathisen, Ralph "Petronius Maximus (17 March 455 – 22 May 455)", De Imperatoribus Romanis (1999)