Parasitic wasp
Encyclopedia
The term parasitoid wasp refers to a large evolutionary grade
of hymenoptera
n superfamilies
, mainly in the Apocrita
. They are primarily parasitoids of other animals, mostly other arthropod
s. Many of them, such as the family Braconidae
, are considered beneficial to humans because they control
populations of agricultural pests.
Some of these wasps help pest control in a rather sophisticated manner. Certain types of plants have compounds that work in part with the saliva of caterpillars. When the saliva of the caterpillar and the juices of the plant mix, a fragrance is emitted that certain parasitoid wasps are very attracted to. The parasitoid wasps then kill the caterpillars and often use the carcasses to lay eggs within. This is a form of mutualism between the plant and the wasp and works only when the fragrance from the plant and the saliva combine.
: one of these, the "Parasitica" containing the parasitoid wasp. However, the use of the name Parasitica (or its alternative, "Terebrantia") has been phased out in recent years, as it is a paraphyletic grouping, and most modern classifications explicitly reject the use of any groups that are not monophyletic.
Presently, it is not clear what the eventual taxonomic fate of these groups will be. A number of clade
s seem to stand out in newer studies, and these may be treated as unranked taxa or at the ranks of infraorder and division.
Other than the "Parasitica", there are a few Apocrita
that are also sometimes called "parasitic wasps": most of the members of the superfamily Chrysidoidea
, as well as most of the families superfamily Vespoidea
such as Bradynobaenidae
, Mutillidae
, Rhopalosomatidae
, Sapygidae
, Scoliidae
, Sierolomorphidae
, Tiphiidae
, and a few species of Pompilidae. Most of these groups are ectoparasitoids. Among the sawflies
, which are not Apocrita, there is only one small parasitic family, Orussidae
. This is the Apocrita's closest living relative. It thus appears that the ancestors of bee
s were parasitic too.
:
Evolutionary grade
In alpha taxonomy, a grade refers to a taxon united by a level of morphological or physiological complexity. The term was coined by British biologist Julian Huxley, to contrast with clade, a strictly phylogenetic unit.-Definition:...
of hymenoptera
Hymenoptera
Hymenoptera is one of the largest orders of insects, comprising the sawflies, wasps, bees and ants. There are over 130,000 recognized species, with many more remaining to be described. The name refers to the heavy wings of the insects, and is derived from the Ancient Greek ὑμήν : membrane and...
n superfamilies
Taxonomic rank
In biological classification, rank is the level in a taxonomic hierarchy. Examples of taxonomic ranks are species, genus, family, and class. Each rank subsumes under it a number of less general categories...
, mainly in the Apocrita
Apocrita
Apocrita is a suborder of insects in the order Hymenoptera.Apocrita includes wasps, bees and ants, and consists of many families. It includes the most advanced hymenopterans and is distinguished from Symphyta by the narrow "waist" formed between the first two segments of the actual abdomen; the...
. They are primarily parasitoids of other animals, mostly other arthropod
Arthropod
An arthropod is an invertebrate animal having an exoskeleton , a segmented body, and jointed appendages. Arthropods are members of the phylum Arthropoda , and include the insects, arachnids, crustaceans, and others...
s. Many of them, such as the family Braconidae
Braconidae
Braconidae is a family of parasitoid wasps and one of the richest families of insects. Between 50,000 and 150,000 species exist worldwide. The species are grouped into about 45 subfamilies and 1,000 genera, some important ones being: Ademon, Aphanta, Asobara, Bracon hebetor, Cenocoelius, Chaenusa,...
, are considered beneficial to humans because they control
Biological pest control
Biological control of pests in agriculture is a method of controlling pests that relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms...
populations of agricultural pests.
Some of these wasps help pest control in a rather sophisticated manner. Certain types of plants have compounds that work in part with the saliva of caterpillars. When the saliva of the caterpillar and the juices of the plant mix, a fragrance is emitted that certain parasitoid wasps are very attracted to. The parasitoid wasps then kill the caterpillars and often use the carcasses to lay eggs within. This is a form of mutualism between the plant and the wasp and works only when the fragrance from the plant and the saliva combine.
Taxonomy and systematics
Historically, the classification system of Hymenoptera included two divisions or infraorders within the suborder ApocritaApocrita
Apocrita is a suborder of insects in the order Hymenoptera.Apocrita includes wasps, bees and ants, and consists of many families. It includes the most advanced hymenopterans and is distinguished from Symphyta by the narrow "waist" formed between the first two segments of the actual abdomen; the...
: one of these, the "Parasitica" containing the parasitoid wasp. However, the use of the name Parasitica (or its alternative, "Terebrantia") has been phased out in recent years, as it is a paraphyletic grouping, and most modern classifications explicitly reject the use of any groups that are not monophyletic.
Presently, it is not clear what the eventual taxonomic fate of these groups will be. A number of clade
Clade
A clade is a group consisting of a species and all its descendants. In the terms of biological systematics, a clade is a single "branch" on the "tree of life". The idea that such a "natural group" of organisms should be grouped together and given a taxonomic name is central to biological...
s seem to stand out in newer studies, and these may be treated as unranked taxa or at the ranks of infraorder and division.
Superfamilies
The traditional superfamilies united in the "Parasitica" are:- Superfamily CeraphronoideaCeraphronoideaCeraphronoidea is a small Hymenopteran superfamily that includes only two families, and a total of some 800 species, though a great many species are still undescribed...
- Superfamily Chalcidoidea
- Superfamily CynipoideaCynipoideaCynipoidea is a moderate-sized Hymenopteran superfamily that presently includes five modern families and three extinct families, though others have been recognized in the past. The most familiar members of the group are phytophagous, especially as gall-formers, though the actual majority of...
- Superfamily EvanioideaEvanioideaEvanioidea is a small Hymenopteran superfamily that includes three families, two of which are much more closely related to one another than they are to the remaining family, Evaniidae. There is a rich fossil record, however, that helps fill in the gaps between these lineages...
- Superfamily Ichneumonoidea
- Superfamily Megalyroidea
- Superfamily Mymarommatoidea (sometimes included in Serphitoidea)
- Superfamily PlatygastroideaPlatygastroideaThe Hymenopteran superfamily Platygastroidea has, in the past, often been treated as a lineage within the superfamily Proctotrupoidea, but most classifications since 1977 have recognized it as an independent group, composed of two families, the Platygastridae and the Scelionidae, with a combined...
- Superfamily ProctotrupoideaProctotrupoideaThe Hymenopteran superfamily Proctotrupoidea is a somewhat confusing assemblage of taxa, with new families being added with surprising frequency, and very little to unify them all into a single natural group...
- Superfamily Serphitoidea (fossilFossilFossils are the preserved remains or traces of animals , plants, and other organisms from the remote past...
) - Superfamily Stephanoidea
- Superfamily Trigonaloidea
Other than the "Parasitica", there are a few Apocrita
Apocrita
Apocrita is a suborder of insects in the order Hymenoptera.Apocrita includes wasps, bees and ants, and consists of many families. It includes the most advanced hymenopterans and is distinguished from Symphyta by the narrow "waist" formed between the first two segments of the actual abdomen; the...
that are also sometimes called "parasitic wasps": most of the members of the superfamily Chrysidoidea
Chrysidoidea
The superfamily Chrysidoidea is a very large cosmopolitan group of parasitoid or cleptoparasitic wasps, with three large, common families and four tiny, rare families. Most species are small , almost never exceeding 15 mm...
, as well as most of the families superfamily Vespoidea
Vespoidea
Vespoidea is a superfamily of order Hymenoptera of class Insecta, although older taxonomic schemes may vary in this categorization, particularly in their recognition of a now-obsolete superfamily Scolioidea...
such as Bradynobaenidae
Bradynobaenidae
Bradynobaenidae is a family of wasps similar to the Mutillidae. These species are often found in arid regions.- Genera found in Europe :* Apterogyna Latreille, 1809* Gynecaptera Skorikov, 1935- Other genera :* Bradynobaenus Spinola, 1851...
, Mutillidae
Mutillidae
Mutillidae are a family of more than 3,000 species of wasp whose wingless females resemble ants. Their common name velvet ant refers to their dense pile of hair which most often is bright scarlet or orange but may also be black, white, silver, or gold. Their bright colours serve as aposematic signals...
, Rhopalosomatidae
Rhopalosomatidae
Rhopalosomatidae is a family of Hymenoptera. It contains about 68 extant species in four genera that are found worldwide. Three fossil genera are known....
, Sapygidae
Sapygidae
The Sapygidae are a family of solitary aculeate wasps. There does not seem to be a common English name, but Club-horned wasps seems as good a name as any, though various other groups of wasps also have clubbed or thickened antennae...
, Scoliidae
Scoliidae
Scoliidae, the scoliid wasps, is a small family represented by 6 genera and about 20 species in North America, but they occur worldwide, with a total of around 300 species. They tend to be black, often marked with yellow or orange, and their wing tips are distinctively corrugated...
, Sierolomorphidae
Sierolomorphidae
The Sierolomorphidae are a family of about 10 known species of wasps found in Tropical America and Asia. They are rare and very little is known of their biology....
, Tiphiidae
Tiphiidae
Tiphiidae is a family of large solitary wasps whose larvae are almost universally parasitoids of various beetle larvae, especially those in the superfamily Scarabaeoidea....
, and a few species of Pompilidae. Most of these groups are ectoparasitoids. Among the sawflies
Sawfly
Sawfly is the common name for insects belonging to suborder Symphyta of the order Hymenoptera. Sawflies are distinguishable from most other Hymenoptera by the broad connection between the abdomen and the thorax, and by their caterpillar-like larvae...
, which are not Apocrita, there is only one small parasitic family, Orussidae
Orussidae
The family Orussidae is the only Symphytan group which is parasitic, thus giving them the common name parasitic wood wasps...
. This is the Apocrita's closest living relative. It thus appears that the ancestors of bee
Bee
Bees are flying insects closely related to wasps and ants, and are known for their role in pollination and for producing honey and beeswax. Bees are a monophyletic lineage within the superfamily Apoidea, presently classified by the unranked taxon name Anthophila...
s were parasitic too.
Systematics
According to recent cladistic studies, there are a number of basal lineages among the Apocrita, as well as a diverse group of parasitic wasps that seems to form a major clade. If the Apocrita are divided into infraorders, about 6 of these must be recognized, and several of these warrant further subdivision, with a number of families being moved out of the ProctotrupoideaProctotrupoidea
The Hymenopteran superfamily Proctotrupoidea is a somewhat confusing assemblage of taxa, with new families being added with surprising frequency, and very little to unify them all into a single natural group...
:
- Superfamily Ichneumonoidea seems closer to the AculeataAculeataThe name Aculeata is used to refer to a monophyletic lineage of Hymenoptera. The word "Aculeata" is a reference to the defining feature of the group, which is the modification of the ovipositor into a stinger . In other words, the structure that was originally used to lay eggs is modified instead...
than to other parasitic wasps. If the Aculeata are treated as a division, the Ichneumonoidea would form a basal superfamily in a new infraorder. - Superfamily Stephanoidea forms a clade or infraorder of its own.
- Another clade or infraorder contains the following groups:
- Superfamily Megalyroidea
- Superfamily Trigonaloidea
- a clade or division containing
- Superfamily CeraphronoideaCeraphronoideaCeraphronoidea is a small Hymenopteran superfamily that includes only two families, and a total of some 800 species, though a great many species are still undescribed...
- Superfamily EvanioideaEvanioideaEvanioidea is a small Hymenopteran superfamily that includes three families, two of which are much more closely related to one another than they are to the remaining family, Evaniidae. There is a rich fossil record, however, that helps fill in the gaps between these lineages...
.
- Superfamily Ceraphronoidea
- A clade or infraorder containing families formerly in the Proctotrupoidea:
- Family Maamingidae
- a clade, division or superfamily containing
- Family Austroniidae
- Family DiapriidaeDiapriidaeDiapriidae is a family of insects belonging to the order Hymenoptera. These tiny wasps are typically parasitoids on the larvae and pupae of a wide range of insects, especially flies; a few are hyperparasitoids...
- Family Monomachidae.
- Another clade or infraorder of families formerly in the Proctotrupoidea:
- Family Proctorenyxidae
- Family Roproniidae
- The bulk of the parasitic wasps, a clade or infraorder containing two very distinct groups:
- One clade or division containing:
- Superfamily PlatygastroideaPlatygastroideaThe Hymenopteran superfamily Platygastroidea has, in the past, often been treated as a lineage within the superfamily Proctotrupoidea, but most classifications since 1977 have recognized it as an independent group, composed of two families, the Platygastridae and the Scelionidae, with a combined...
- Superfamily Chalcidoidea
- Superfamily Mymarommatoidea (sometimes included in Serphitoidea)
- Superfamily Serphitoidea (fossilFossilFossils are the preserved remains or traces of animals , plants, and other organisms from the remote past...
, tentatively placed here).
- Superfamily Platygastroidea
- Another clade or division containing:
- Superfamily CynipoideaCynipoideaCynipoidea is a moderate-sized Hymenopteran superfamily that presently includes five modern families and three extinct families, though others have been recognized in the past. The most familiar members of the group are phytophagous, especially as gall-formers, though the actual majority of...
- Superfamily ProctotrupoideaProctotrupoideaThe Hymenopteran superfamily Proctotrupoidea is a somewhat confusing assemblage of taxa, with new families being added with surprising frequency, and very little to unify them all into a single natural group...
sensu stricto
- Superfamily Cynipoidea
- One clade or division containing:
External links
- Parasitic Wasp at Texas Cooperative Extension. Reprinted from Drees, Bastiaan M. and John A. Jackman. A Field Guide to Common Texas Insects. Houston: Gulf Publishing Company, 1999. ISBN 0877192634.
- Tree of Life Web Project: Apocrita
- Ponent Pictorial overview. (In Catalan)
- http://www.plosone.org/article/fetchArticle.action?articleURI=info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0002276 Manipulation of host behaviour by a parasitoid