Paradigmatic analysis
Encyclopedia
Paradigmatic analysis is the analysis of paradigm
s embedded in the text rather than of the surface structure (syntax
) of the text which is termed syntagmatic analysis
. Paradigmatic analysis often uses commutation test
s, i.e. analysis by substituting words of the same type or class to calibrate shifts in connotation
.
, the sign
is the fundamental building block out of which all meaning
is constructed and transmitted. Meaning is encoded
by the sender of the message and decoded
by the receiver recalling past experience and placing the message in its appropriate cultural
context. Individual signs can be collected together to form more complex signs, i.e. building up from linguistics
, groups of sounds (and the letters to represent them) form words, groups of words form sentences, sentences form narrative
s, etc. The constructed signs are called syntagms (see syntagmatic structure
) and each collection may be a paradigm. Thus, in the English language
, the alphabet
is the paradigm from which the syntagms of English words are formed. The set of English words collected together in a lexicon
become the paradigm from which sentences are formed, etc. Hence, paradigmatic analysis is a method for exploring a syntagm by identifying its constituent paradigm, studying the individual paradigmatic elements, and then reconstructing the process by which the syntagm takes on meaning.
introduced a theory to explain the function of spoken language in human communication. This model has two levels of description:
In the first place, every language has a vocabulary and a syntax. Its elements are words with fixed denotative
meanings. Out of these one can construct, according to the rules of the syntax, composite symbols with resultant new meanings. Secondly, in a language, some words are equivalent to whole combinations of other words, so that most meanings can be expressed in several different ways. Studies of human perception show that to some extent, what people perceive depends on what they expect to perceive. L. David Ritchie proposes that communication creates relationships between what is perceived or known by one person and what is perceived or known by others; the form of the communication will be determined in part by whether there are pre-existing relationships between the communicator and the audience
. The receiver and originator of a message must work from some common understanding of what sorts of patterns are used to communicate and how these patterns are related to other events. Communication has to do with community both in the sense that it relies on having something in common in the first place and in the sense that it can influence what the communicants subsequently have in common.
, paradigmatic analysis was a method of musical analysis
developed by Nicolas Ruwet
during the 1960s but later named by others. It is "based on the concept of 'equivalence
'. Ruwet argued that the most striking characteristic of musical syntax was the central role of repetition
- and, by extension, of varied repetition or transformation
(Ruwet 1987)" (Middleton 1990/2002, p.183).
Paradigmatic analysis assumes that Roman Jakobson
's description of the poetic
system (1960, p.358) applies to music and that in both a "projection of the principle of equivalence from the axis of selection on to the axis of combination" occurs. Thus paradigmatic analyses is able to base the assignment of units entirely on repetition so that "anything repeated (straight or varied) is defined as a unit, and this is true on all levels," from sections to phrases and individual sounds (Middleton, ibid).
Paradigm
The word paradigm has been used in science to describe distinct concepts. It comes from Greek "παράδειγμα" , "pattern, example, sample" from the verb "παραδείκνυμι" , "exhibit, represent, expose" and that from "παρά" , "beside, beyond" + "δείκνυμι" , "to show, to point out".The original Greek...
s embedded in the text rather than of the surface structure (syntax
Syntax
In linguistics, syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing phrases and sentences in natural languages....
) of the text which is termed syntagmatic analysis
Syntagmatic analysis
In semiotics, syntagmatic analysis is analysis of syntax or surface structure as opposed to paradigms . This is often achieved using commutation tests ....
. Paradigmatic analysis often uses commutation test
Commutation test (semiotics)
In semiotics, the commutation test is used to analyze a signifying system. The test identifies signifiers as well as their signifieds, value and significance.-The commutation test:...
s, i.e. analysis by substituting words of the same type or class to calibrate shifts in connotation
Connotation (semiotics)
In semiotics, connotation arises when the denotative relationship between a signifier and its signified is inadequate to serve the needs of the community. A second level of meanings is termed connotative...
.
Definition of terms
In semioticsSemiotics
Semiotics, also called semiotic studies or semiology, is the study of signs and sign processes , indication, designation, likeness, analogy, metaphor, symbolism, signification, and communication...
, the sign
Sign (semiotics)
A sign is understood as a discrete unit of meaning in semiotics. It is defined as "something that stands for something, to someone in some capacity" It includes words, images, gestures, scents, tastes, textures, sounds – essentially all of the ways in which information can be...
is the fundamental building block out of which all meaning
Meaning (semiotics)
In semiotics, the meaning of a sign is its place in a sign relation, in other words, the set of roles that it occupies within a given sign relation. This statement holds whether sign is taken to mean a sign type or a sign token...
is constructed and transmitted. Meaning is encoded
Encode (semiotics)
In semiotics, the process of creating a message for transmission by the addresser to the addressee is called encoding. The act of interpreting the message by the addressee is called decoding.-Discussion:...
by the sender of the message and decoded
Decode (semiotics)
In semiotics, the process of interpreting a message sent by the addresser to the addressee is called decoding. Creating a message for transmission by the addresser is called encoding.-Discussion:...
by the receiver recalling past experience and placing the message in its appropriate cultural
Culture
Culture is a term that has many different inter-related meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions...
context. Individual signs can be collected together to form more complex signs, i.e. building up from linguistics
Linguistics
Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. Linguistics can be broadly broken into three categories or subfields of study: language form, language meaning, and language in context....
, groups of sounds (and the letters to represent them) form words, groups of words form sentences, sentences form narrative
Narrative
A narrative is a constructive format that describes a sequence of non-fictional or fictional events. The word derives from the Latin verb narrare, "to recount", and is related to the adjective gnarus, "knowing" or "skilled"...
s, etc. The constructed signs are called syntagms (see syntagmatic structure
Syntagmatic structure
Syntagmatic structure is "the mode of time-awareness in which listeners are placed" such as 'narrative', 'epic', or 'lyrical'....
) and each collection may be a paradigm. Thus, in the English language
Language
Language may refer either to the specifically human capacity for acquiring and using complex systems of communication, or to a specific instance of such a system of complex communication...
, the alphabet
Alphabet
An alphabet is a standard set of letters—basic written symbols or graphemes—each of which represents a phoneme in a spoken language, either as it exists now or as it was in the past. There are other systems, such as logographies, in which each character represents a word, morpheme, or semantic...
is the paradigm from which the syntagms of English words are formed. The set of English words collected together in a lexicon
Lexicon
In linguistics, the lexicon of a language is its vocabulary, including its words and expressions. A lexicon is also a synonym of the word thesaurus. More formally, it is a language's inventory of lexemes. Coined in English 1603, the word "lexicon" derives from the Greek "λεξικόν" , neut...
become the paradigm from which sentences are formed, etc. Hence, paradigmatic analysis is a method for exploring a syntagm by identifying its constituent paradigm, studying the individual paradigmatic elements, and then reconstructing the process by which the syntagm takes on meaning.
Jakobson and Ritchie
Roman JakobsonRoman Jakobson
Roman Osipovich Jakobson was a Russian linguist and literary theorist.As a pioneer of the structural analysis of language, which became the dominant trend of twentieth-century linguistics, Jakobson was among the most influential linguists of the century...
introduced a theory to explain the function of spoken language in human communication. This model has two levels of description:
- the various component elements forming language, and
- what humans do with the language when they use it.
In the first place, every language has a vocabulary and a syntax. Its elements are words with fixed denotative
Denotation (semiotics)
In semiotics, denotation is the surface or literal meaning encoded to a signifier, and the definition most likely to appear in a dictionary.-Discussion :Drawing from the original word or definition proposed by Saussure , a sign has two parts:...
meanings. Out of these one can construct, according to the rules of the syntax, composite symbols with resultant new meanings. Secondly, in a language, some words are equivalent to whole combinations of other words, so that most meanings can be expressed in several different ways. Studies of human perception show that to some extent, what people perceive depends on what they expect to perceive. L. David Ritchie proposes that communication creates relationships between what is perceived or known by one person and what is perceived or known by others; the form of the communication will be determined in part by whether there are pre-existing relationships between the communicator and the audience
Audience
An audience is a group of people who participate in a show or encounter a work of art, literature , theatre, music or academics in any medium...
. The receiver and originator of a message must work from some common understanding of what sorts of patterns are used to communicate and how these patterns are related to other events. Communication has to do with community both in the sense that it relies on having something in common in the first place and in the sense that it can influence what the communicants subsequently have in common.
Applied to music
In musicMusic
Music is an art form whose medium is sound and silence. Its common elements are pitch , rhythm , dynamics, and the sonic qualities of timbre and texture...
, paradigmatic analysis was a method of musical analysis
Musical analysis
Musical analysis is the attempt to answer the question how does this music work?. The method employed to answer this question, and indeed exactly what is meant by the question, differs from analyst to analyst, and according to the purpose of the analysis. According to Ian Bent , analysis is "an...
developed by Nicolas Ruwet
Nicolas Ruwet
Nicolas Ruwet was a linguist, literary critic and musical analyst. He was involved with the development of generative grammar.Ruwet was born in Saive in Belgium and studied philology in Liège...
during the 1960s but later named by others. It is "based on the concept of 'equivalence
Equivalence class (music)
In music theory, equivalence class is an equality or equivalence between sets or twelve-tone rows. A relation rather than an operation, it may be contrasted with derivation. "It is not surprising that music theorists have different concepts of equivalence [from each other]..." "Indeed, an informal...
'. Ruwet argued that the most striking characteristic of musical syntax was the central role of repetition
Repetition (music)
Repetition is important in music, where sounds or sequences are often repeated. One often stated idea is that repetition should be in balance with the initial statements and variations in a piece. It may be called restatement, such as the restatement of a theme...
- and, by extension, of varied repetition or transformation
Transformation (music)
In music, a transformation consists of any operation or process that may apply to a musical variable in composition, performance, or analysis. Transformations include multiplication, rotation, permutation In music, a transformation consists of any operation or process that may apply to a musical...
(Ruwet 1987)" (Middleton 1990/2002, p.183).
Paradigmatic analysis assumes that Roman Jakobson
Roman Jakobson
Roman Osipovich Jakobson was a Russian linguist and literary theorist.As a pioneer of the structural analysis of language, which became the dominant trend of twentieth-century linguistics, Jakobson was among the most influential linguists of the century...
's description of the poetic
Poetic
Poetic may refer to:* Poetry, or a relation thereof.* Too Poetic, a deceased rapper and hip hop producer....
system (1960, p.358) applies to music and that in both a "projection of the principle of equivalence from the axis of selection on to the axis of combination" occurs. Thus paradigmatic analyses is able to base the assignment of units entirely on repetition so that "anything repeated (straight or varied) is defined as a unit, and this is true on all levels," from sections to phrases and individual sounds (Middleton, ibid).