Northwest African Air Forces
Encyclopedia
Northwest African Air Forces (NAAF) was the principal sub-command of the Mediterranean Air Command
created when the Allied
air forces in North Africa and the Mediterranean Theater of Operations
(MTO) were reorganized in February of 1943. Based on the successful air interdiction model of the Royal Air Force
(RAF) pioneered primarily by Air Marshal Arthur Tedder and Air Vice Marshal Arthur Coningham
of Middle East Command
in Egypt and Libya
during 1942, the main combat commands of NAAF consisted of strategic, coastal, and tactical air forces. The tri-force command structure was successfully implemented and developed during the Tunisian, Sicilian, and Italian campaigns and therefore retained when the air forces were again reorganized in December of 1943 as the Mediterranean Allied Air Forces
(MAAF) which persisted until the end of the Second World War in Europe. Effective coordination of air and ground forces was a key feature of the tri-force model fostered by the command structures of NAAF, MAAF, and today's air forces. Lt. Gen. Carl Spaatz
was the commander of NAAF.
in November of 1942, cooperation between the Allied
air forces became an important priority in the North African and Mediterranean Theater of Operations
(MTO). Such cooperation was a major concern of American President Franklin D. Roosevelt
, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill
, and their staffs at the Casablanca Conference in January of 1943 when they established a new Allied air force organization known as the Mediterranean Air Command
(MAC) with Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Tedder as Air Commander-in-Chief.
Effective February 18, 1943, the Northwest African Air Forces (NAAF) under Lieutenant General Carl Spaatz
became the largest and primary sub-command of MAC. The Casablanca planners modeled NAAF after the successful coordination of strategic, coastal, and tactical forces of the Royal Air Force
(RAF) Middle East Command
under Tedder during the campaigns in Egypt and Libya
in 1942. Those three forces consisted of:
Accordingly, the Northwest African Air Forces was invested with three major combat commands:
Additionally, the following support commands were assigned to NAAF:
To foster cooperation between the British RAF and the American USAAF, the commands listed above and their various sub-commands were intended to have a commanding officer from one air force and a deputy from the other air force. In keeping with this plan, Spaatz's deputy of NAAF was Air Vice-Marshal James Robb
who handled operations.
Strong consideration was also given to the concept that air, naval, and ground forces should coordinate effectively to provide optimum support of ground troops. In 1942–1943, when the role of air power was still being explored on the battlefield, classic close air support
was essentially pioneered and developed by Tedder as Commander-in-Chief of Middle East Command
and Coningham as Air Officer Commanding (AOC) of Air Headquarters Western Desert
.
Unfortunately, the importance of flexible coordination between air, naval, and ground forces took much time to realize let alone implement during the Desert war. Finally, it was Tedder (Churchill's second choice for Middle East Commander when Air Vice-Marshal Owen Boyd
was captured) who finally realized, despite the encumberances of the current military dogma and commander egos, that every campaign must be planned and executed as a joint operation by all three forces. Soon after being named Air Officer Commanding of RAF Middle East in June of 1941, Tedder said:
In particular, the flexibility between Coningham's WDAF and the 8th Army
has been contrasted with the more rigid relationship between the Luftwaffe and German ground forces.
The United States 12th Air Force, the largest air force ever assembled soon after its inception several months earlier, ceased to exist in the new MAC organizational structure. The 12th simply disappeared as its groups were distributed among the various new NAAF commands above. The sole reference to the 12th Air Force among the higher tier commands was Brigadier General Edwin House's XII Air Support Command which along with Air Vice Marshal Harry Broadhurst
's Western Desert Air Force, Air Commodore Laurence Sinclair
's Tactical Bomber Force, and Air Commodore Sir Kenneth Cross
' No. 242 Group
, became subordinate commands of Coningham's NATAF. Later, XII Air Support Command became even less obvious in the MAC structure when it was detached to No. 242 Group. Prior to the invasion of Sicily (Operation Husky) in July of 1943, No. 242 Group was assigned to Lloyd's NACAF on Malta.
On December 10, 1943, MAC was disbanded and the Allied air forces in the MTO were again reorganized as the Mediterranean Allied Air Forces
(MAAF) with Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Tedder as Air Commander-in-Chief. In mid-January of 1944, Lieutenant General Ira Eaker took over MAAF when Eisenhower chose Tedder to oversee air operations and planning for the Normandy Landings. The new MAAF organization contained separate strategic, coastal, and tactical air forces under a single unified structure:
Northwest African Air Forces was the first official command based upon the tri-force model. Successfully practiced and developed during the Tunisian
, Pantellerian
, Sicilian, and Italian
campaigns, the tri-force model was retained by subsequent Allied air forces for D-Day Normandy
and D-Day Southern France
. Even some of today's air forces consider the historical precedents of the tri-force model.
Mediterranean Air Command
The Mediterranean Air Command was the official Allied air force command organization in the North African and Mediterranean Theater of Operations between February 18 and December 10, 1943. MAC was commanded by Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Tedder whose headquarters were established next to those...
created when the Allied
Allies of World War II
The Allies of World War II were the countries that opposed the Axis powers during the Second World War . Former Axis states contributing to the Allied victory are not considered Allied states...
air forces in North Africa and the Mediterranean Theater of Operations
Mediterranean Theater of Operations
The Mediterranean Theater of Operations, United States Army was originally called North African Theater of Operations and is an American term for the conflict that took place between the Allies and Axis Powers in North Africa and Italy during World War II...
(MTO) were reorganized in February of 1943. Based on the successful air interdiction model of the Royal Air Force
Royal Air Force
The Royal Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Formed on 1 April 1918, it is the oldest independent air force in the world...
(RAF) pioneered primarily by Air Marshal Arthur Tedder and Air Vice Marshal Arthur Coningham
Arthur Coningham (RAF officer)
Air Marshal Sir Arthur "Mary" Coningham KCB, KBE, DSO, MC, DFC, AFC, RAF was a senior officer in the Royal Air Force. During the First World War, he was at Gallipoli with the New Zealand Expeditionary Force, transferred to the Royal Flying Corps, where he became a flying ace...
of Middle East Command
RAF Middle East Command
Middle East Command was a command of the Royal Air Force formed on December 29, 1941 by renaming Headquarters RAF Middle East. During the early part of the Second World War the Command was one of the three major British service commands in the Middle East, the others being the British Army's...
in Egypt and Libya
North African campaign
During the Second World War, the North African Campaign took place in North Africa from 10 June 1940 to 13 May 1943. It included campaigns fought in the Libyan and Egyptian deserts and in Morocco and Algeria and Tunisia .The campaign was fought between the Allies and Axis powers, many of whom had...
during 1942, the main combat commands of NAAF consisted of strategic, coastal, and tactical air forces. The tri-force command structure was successfully implemented and developed during the Tunisian, Sicilian, and Italian campaigns and therefore retained when the air forces were again reorganized in December of 1943 as the Mediterranean Allied Air Forces
Mediterranean Allied Air Forces
The Mediterranean Allied Air Forces was the major Allied air force command organization in the Mediterranean theater from mid-December 1943 until the end of the Second World War.-Formation:...
(MAAF) which persisted until the end of the Second World War in Europe. Effective coordination of air and ground forces was a key feature of the tri-force model fostered by the command structures of NAAF, MAAF, and today's air forces. Lt. Gen. Carl Spaatz
Carl Spaatz
Carl Andrew "Tooey" Spaatz GBE was an American World War II general and the first Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force. He was of German descent.-Early life:...
was the commander of NAAF.
Formation
When the first United States Army Air Force (USAAF) groups arrived in the Middle East in June of 1942 and the 12th Air Force established a foothold in Algeria following Operation TorchOperation Torch
Operation Torch was the British-American invasion of French North Africa in World War II during the North African Campaign, started on 8 November 1942....
in November of 1942, cooperation between the Allied
Allies of World War II
The Allies of World War II were the countries that opposed the Axis powers during the Second World War . Former Axis states contributing to the Allied victory are not considered Allied states...
air forces became an important priority in the North African and Mediterranean Theater of Operations
Mediterranean Theater of Operations
The Mediterranean Theater of Operations, United States Army was originally called North African Theater of Operations and is an American term for the conflict that took place between the Allies and Axis Powers in North Africa and Italy during World War II...
(MTO). Such cooperation was a major concern of American President Franklin D. Roosevelt
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Franklin Delano Roosevelt , also known by his initials, FDR, was the 32nd President of the United States and a central figure in world events during the mid-20th century, leading the United States during a time of worldwide economic crisis and world war...
, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill
Winston Churchill
Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, was a predominantly Conservative British politician and statesman known for his leadership of the United Kingdom during the Second World War. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest wartime leaders of the century and served as Prime Minister twice...
, and their staffs at the Casablanca Conference in January of 1943 when they established a new Allied air force organization known as the Mediterranean Air Command
Mediterranean Air Command
The Mediterranean Air Command was the official Allied air force command organization in the North African and Mediterranean Theater of Operations between February 18 and December 10, 1943. MAC was commanded by Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Tedder whose headquarters were established next to those...
(MAC) with Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Tedder as Air Commander-in-Chief.
Effective February 18, 1943, the Northwest African Air Forces (NAAF) under Lieutenant General Carl Spaatz
Carl Spaatz
Carl Andrew "Tooey" Spaatz GBE was an American World War II general and the first Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force. He was of German descent.-Early life:...
became the largest and primary sub-command of MAC. The Casablanca planners modeled NAAF after the successful coordination of strategic, coastal, and tactical forces of the Royal Air Force
Royal Air Force
The Royal Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Formed on 1 April 1918, it is the oldest independent air force in the world...
(RAF) Middle East Command
RAF Middle East Command
Middle East Command was a command of the Royal Air Force formed on December 29, 1941 by renaming Headquarters RAF Middle East. During the early part of the Second World War the Command was one of the three major British service commands in the Middle East, the others being the British Army's...
under Tedder during the campaigns in Egypt and Libya
North African campaign
During the Second World War, the North African Campaign took place in North Africa from 10 June 1940 to 13 May 1943. It included campaigns fought in the Libyan and Egyptian deserts and in Morocco and Algeria and Tunisia .The campaign was fought between the Allies and Axis powers, many of whom had...
in 1942. Those three forces consisted of:
- No. 205 (Heavy Bomber) GroupNo. 205 Group RAFNo. 205 Group was a long-range, heavy bomber group of the Royal Air Force established on October 23, 1941 by boosting No. 257 Wing to Group status....
's long-range strategic bombardment force consisting of 5 Wings (10-12 RAF and SAAF squadrons co-operating with Lieutenant General Lewis H. BreretonLewis H. BreretonLewis Hyde Brereton was a military aviation pioneer and lieutenant general in the United States Air Force...
's 9th Bombardment Squadron9th Bomb SquadronThe 9th Bomb Squadron is part of the 7th Bomb Wing at Dyess Air Force Base, Texas. It operates B-1 Lancer aircraft providing strategic bombing capability...
of B-17s and Colonel Harry A. Halverson's detachment of B-24s); - No. 201 (Naval Co-operation) GroupNo. 201 Group RAFNo. 201 Group was a group of the Royal Air Force during the Second World War.-History:No. 201 Group RAF was formed on 18 September 1939 from General Reconnaissance Group, Middle East of the Royal Air Force . The group was initially commanded by Group Captain H.W.G. Penderel. On May 11, 1940, Group...
's anti-shipping coastal force (10 squadrons: Greek, RAAF, SAAF and RAF); and - Air Headquarters, Western DesertDesert Air ForceThe Desert Air Force , also known chronologically as Air Headquarters Western Desert, Air Headquarters Libya, AHQ Western Desert, the Western Desert Air Force, Desert Air Force, and the First Tactical Air Force , was an Allied tactical air force initially created from No...
's tactical fighter command including its attached Desert Air Task Force consisting of the United States 57th Fighter and 12th Bombardment Groups with P-40F's and B-25C's, respectively.
Accordingly, the Northwest African Air Forces was invested with three major combat commands:
- Northwest African Strategic Air ForceNorthwest African Strategic Air ForceThe Northwest African Strategic Air Force was a sub-command of the Northwest African Air Forces which itself was a sub-command of the Mediterranean Air Command...
(NASAF) under former 12th Air Force commander Major General James H. DoolittleJimmy DoolittleGeneral James Harold "Jimmy" Doolittle, USAF was an American aviation pioneer. Doolittle served as a brigadier general, major general and lieutenant general in the United States Army Air Forces during the Second World War...
; - Northwest African Coastal Air ForceNorthwest African Coastal Air ForceThe Northwest African Coastal Air Force was a sub-command of the Northwest African Air Forces which itself was a sub-command of the Mediterranean Air Command...
(NACAF) initially under Group Captain G. G. Barrett (Acting) and soon after under Air Vice-Marshal Hugh Lloyd; and - Northwest African Tactical Air ForceNorthwest African Tactical Air ForceThe Northwest African Tactical Air Force was a sub-command of the Northwest African Air Forces which itself was a sub-command of the Mediterranean Air Command...
(NATAF) under Acting Air Marshal Sir Arthur ConinghamArthur Coningham (RAF officer)Air Marshal Sir Arthur "Mary" Coningham KCB, KBE, DSO, MC, DFC, AFC, RAF was a senior officer in the Royal Air Force. During the First World War, he was at Gallipoli with the New Zealand Expeditionary Force, transferred to the Royal Flying Corps, where he became a flying ace...
.
Additionally, the following support commands were assigned to NAAF:
- Northwest African Air Service CommandNorthwest African Air Service CommandThe Northwest African Air Service Command was a sub-command of the Northwest African Air Forces which itself was a sub-command of the Mediterranean Air Command...
(NAASC) under Major General Delmar H. Dunton; - Northwest African Training CommandNorthwest African Training CommandThe Northwest African Training Command was a sub-command of the Northwest African Air Forces which itself was a sub-command of the Mediterranean Air Command...
(NATC) under Brigadier General John K. CannonJohn K. CannonGeneral John Kenneth Cannon was a World War II Mediterranean combat commander and former chief of United States Air Forces in Europe for whom Cannon Air Force Base, Clovis, New Mexico, is named.-Biography:...
; - Northwest African Photographic Reconnaissance WingNorthwest African Photographic Reconnaissance WingThe Northwest African Photographic Reconnaissance Wing was an Allied photo-reconnaissance wing which operated in North Africa during World War II until the end of 1943.- History :...
(NAPRW) under Colonel Elliott RooseveltElliott RooseveltElliott Roosevelt was a United States Army Air Forces officer and an author. Roosevelt was a son of U.S. President Franklin D...
, the US president's son; and - Northwest African Troop Carrier CommandNorthwest African Troop Carrier CommandThe Northwest African Troop Carrier Command was a sub-command of the Northwest African Air Forces which itself was a sub-command of the Mediterranean Air Command...
(NATCC) initially under Colonel Ray Dunn and later under Brigadier General Paul L. WilliamsPaul L. Williams (US general)Paul Langdon Williams was a United States Army Air Forces and United States Air Force general. As head of the IX Troop Carrier Command during World War II, he was responsible for the airlift of the airborne landings in North Africa, Sicily, Italy, Normandy, southern France, Holland and...
.
To foster cooperation between the British RAF and the American USAAF, the commands listed above and their various sub-commands were intended to have a commanding officer from one air force and a deputy from the other air force. In keeping with this plan, Spaatz's deputy of NAAF was Air Vice-Marshal James Robb
James Robb (RAF officer)
Air Chief Marshal Sir James Milne Robb GCB, KBE, DSO, DFC, AFC, RAF, was a senior Royal Air Force commander. After early service in the First World War with the Northumberland Fusiliers, Robb joined the Royal Flying Corps and became a flying ace credited with seven aerial victories...
who handled operations.
Strong consideration was also given to the concept that air, naval, and ground forces should coordinate effectively to provide optimum support of ground troops. In 1942–1943, when the role of air power was still being explored on the battlefield, classic close air support
Close air support
In military tactics, close air support is defined as air action by fixed or rotary winged aircraft against hostile targets that are close to friendly forces, and which requires detailed integration of each air mission with fire and movement of these forces.The determining factor for CAS is...
was essentially pioneered and developed by Tedder as Commander-in-Chief of Middle East Command
RAF Middle East Command
Middle East Command was a command of the Royal Air Force formed on December 29, 1941 by renaming Headquarters RAF Middle East. During the early part of the Second World War the Command was one of the three major British service commands in the Middle East, the others being the British Army's...
and Coningham as Air Officer Commanding (AOC) of Air Headquarters Western Desert
Desert Air Force
The Desert Air Force , also known chronologically as Air Headquarters Western Desert, Air Headquarters Libya, AHQ Western Desert, the Western Desert Air Force, Desert Air Force, and the First Tactical Air Force , was an Allied tactical air force initially created from No...
.
Unfortunately, the importance of flexible coordination between air, naval, and ground forces took much time to realize let alone implement during the Desert war. Finally, it was Tedder (Churchill's second choice for Middle East Commander when Air Vice-Marshal Owen Boyd
Owen Tudor Boyd
Air Marshal Owen Tudor Boyd CB, OBE, MC, AFC was an officer in the British Royal Flying Corps during most of World War I...
was captured) who finally realized, despite the encumberances of the current military dogma and commander egos, that every campaign must be planned and executed as a joint operation by all three forces. Soon after being named Air Officer Commanding of RAF Middle East in June of 1941, Tedder said:
"In my opinion, sea, land and air operations in the Middle East Theater are now so closely inter-related that effective coordination will only be possible if the campaign is considered and controlled as a combined operation in the full sense of that term."
In particular, the flexibility between Coningham's WDAF and the 8th Army
Eighth Army (United Kingdom)
The Eighth Army was one of the best-known formations of the British Army during World War II, fighting in the North African and Italian campaigns....
has been contrasted with the more rigid relationship between the Luftwaffe and German ground forces.
Harry Broadhurst
Air Chief Marshal Sir Harry Broadhurst GCB, KBE, DSO & Bar, DFC & Bar, AFC, RAF , commonly known as Broady, was a senior Royal Air Force commander.-Early life:...
's Western Desert Air Force, Air Commodore Laurence Sinclair
Laurence Frank Sinclair
Air Vice Marshal Sir Laurence Frank Sinclair GC, KCB, CBE, DSO & Bar was awarded the George Cross for rescuing a severely injured airman from a crashed and burning plane.-RAF career:...
's Tactical Bomber Force, and Air Commodore Sir Kenneth Cross
Kenneth Cross
Air Chief Marshal Sir Kenneth Brian Boyd Cross KCB CBE DSO DFC RAF , was a senior Royal Air Force commander. He was commonly known as Bing.-RAF career:...
' No. 242 Group
No. 242 Group RAF
No. 242 Group was a group of the British Royal Air Force formed on 24 August 1942. Its first commander was Air Commodore George Lawson.-History:...
, became subordinate commands of Coningham's NATAF. Later, XII Air Support Command became even less obvious in the MAC structure when it was detached to No. 242 Group. Prior to the invasion of Sicily (Operation Husky) in July of 1943, No. 242 Group was assigned to Lloyd's NACAF on Malta.
On December 10, 1943, MAC was disbanded and the Allied air forces in the MTO were again reorganized as the Mediterranean Allied Air Forces
Mediterranean Allied Air Forces
The Mediterranean Allied Air Forces was the major Allied air force command organization in the Mediterranean theater from mid-December 1943 until the end of the Second World War.-Formation:...
(MAAF) with Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Tedder as Air Commander-in-Chief. In mid-January of 1944, Lieutenant General Ira Eaker took over MAAF when Eisenhower chose Tedder to oversee air operations and planning for the Normandy Landings. The new MAAF organization contained separate strategic, coastal, and tactical air forces under a single unified structure:
- Mediterranean Allied Strategic Air Force (MASAF) under Major General Nathan Twining;
- Mediterranean Allied Coastal Air Force (MACAF) under Air Vice-Marshal Hugh LloydHugh LloydHugh Lewis Lloyd, MBE was an English actor who made his name in television and film comedy from the 1960s to the 1980s. He was best known for appearances in Hugh and I and other sitcoms of the 1960s.-Life:...
; and - Mediterranean Allied Tactical Air Force (MATAF) under Major General John K. CannonJohn K. CannonGeneral John Kenneth Cannon was a World War II Mediterranean combat commander and former chief of United States Air Forces in Europe for whom Cannon Air Force Base, Clovis, New Mexico, is named.-Biography:...
.
Northwest African Air Forces was the first official command based upon the tri-force model. Successfully practiced and developed during the Tunisian
Tunisia Campaign
The Tunisia Campaign was a series of battles that took place in Tunisia during the North African Campaign of the Second World War, between Axis and Allied forces. The Allies consisted of British Imperial Forces, including Polish and Greek contingents, with American and French corps...
, Pantellerian
Operation Corkscrew
During World War II, Operation Corkscrew was the Allied invasion of the Italian island of Pantelleria on 10 June 1943. There had been an early plan to occupy the island in late 1940 , but this was aborted when the Luftwaffe strengthened the Axis air threat in the region.The Allied focus returned...
, Sicilian, and Italian
Allied invasion of Italy
The Allied invasion of Italy was the Allied landing on mainland Italy on September 3, 1943, by General Harold Alexander's 15th Army Group during the Second World War. The operation followed the successful invasion of Sicily during the Italian Campaign...
campaigns, the tri-force model was retained by subsequent Allied air forces for D-Day Normandy
Operation Overlord
Operation Overlord was the code name for the Battle of Normandy, the operation that launched the invasion of German-occupied western Europe during World War II by Allied forces. The operation commenced on 6 June 1944 with the Normandy landings...
and D-Day Southern France
Operation Dragoon
Operation Dragoon was the Allied invasion of southern France on August 15, 1944, during World War II. The invasion was initiated via a parachute drop by the 1st Airborne Task Force, followed by an amphibious assault by elements of the U.S. Seventh Army, followed a day later by a force made up...
. Even some of today's air forces consider the historical precedents of the tri-force model.