Norm of reciprocity
Encyclopedia
The norm of reciprocity is the social expectation that people will respond to each other in kind—returning benefits for benefits, and responding with either indifference or hostility to harms. The social norm of reciprocity often takes different forms in different areas of social life, or in different societies. All of them, however, are distinct from related ideas such as gratitude
, the Golden Rule
, or mutual goodwill. See Reciprocity (social and political philosophy)
for an analysis of the concepts involved.
An underlying norm of reciprocity is by itself a powerful engine for motivating, creating, sustaining, and regulating the cooperative behavior required for self-sustaining social organizations—as well as for controlling the damage done by the unscrupulous. See the discussions in tit for tat
and Reciprocity (social psychology)
. The power and ubiquity of the norm of reciprocity can be used against the unwary, however, and is the basis for the success of many malicious confidence games. Minor, usually less malicious examples are techniques used in advertising
and other propaganda
whereby a small gift of some kind is proffered with the expectation of producing a desire on the part of the recipient to reciprocate in some way, for example by purchasing a product, making a donation, or becoming more receptive to a line of argument. These minor examples include gifts of stickers and pens distributed by charities and flowers handed out by members of the Hare Krishna
group.
(POS) and Perceived psychological contract violation
(PPCV) are the two most common measures of the reciprocity norm in organizational research. POS is the degree to which employees’ believe that their organization values their contributions and cares about their well-being (Eisenberger, Huntington, Huntington, & Sowa, 1986). POS is generally thought to be the organization’s contribution to a positive reciprocity dynamic with employees, as employees tend to perform better to pay back POS (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). PPCV is a construct that regards employees’ feelings of disappointment (ranging from minor frustration to betrayal) arising from their belief that their organization has broken its work-related promises (Morrison & Robinson, 1997), is generally thought to be the organization’s contribution to a negative reciprocity dynamic, as employees tend to perform more poorly to pay back PPCV (Robinson, 1996; Robinson, Kraatz, & Rousseau, 1994; Turnley & Feldman, 1999).
David R. Hekman
and colleagues (2009) recently found that professional employees (e.g. doctors, lawyers) are most likely to repay POS with better performance when such workers have high levels of organizational identification
combined with low levels of professional identification
. They also found that professional employees are most forgiving of PPCV when they have high levels of organizational identification
combined with low levels of professional identification
.
Gratitude
Gratitude, thankfulness, gratefulness, or appreciation is a feeling, emotion or attitude in acknowledgment of a benefit that one has received or will receive. The experience of gratitude has historically been a focus of several world religions, and has been considered extensively by moral...
, the Golden Rule
Golden Rule
Golden Rule may refer to:*The Golden Rule in ethics, morality, history and religion, also known as the ethic of reciprocity*Golden Rule savings rate, in economics, the savings rate which maximizes consumption in the Solow growth model...
, or mutual goodwill. See Reciprocity (social and political philosophy)
Reciprocity (social and political philosophy)
The social norm of reciprocity is the expectation that people will respond to each other in similar ways—responding to gifts and kindnesses from others with similar benevolence of their own, and responding to harmful, hurtful acts from others with either indifference or some form of retaliation...
for an analysis of the concepts involved.
An underlying norm of reciprocity is by itself a powerful engine for motivating, creating, sustaining, and regulating the cooperative behavior required for self-sustaining social organizations—as well as for controlling the damage done by the unscrupulous. See the discussions in tit for tat
Tit for tat
Tit for tat is an English saying meaning "equivalent retaliation". It is also a highly effective strategy in game theory for the iterated prisoner's dilemma. It was first introduced by Anatol Rapoport in Robert Axelrod's two tournaments, held around 1980. An agent using this strategy will initially...
and Reciprocity (social psychology)
Reciprocity (social psychology)
Reciprocity in social psychology refers to responding to a positive action with another positive action, rewarding kind actions. People categorize an action as kind by viewing its consequences and also by the person's fundamental intentions. Even if the consequences are the same, underlying...
. The power and ubiquity of the norm of reciprocity can be used against the unwary, however, and is the basis for the success of many malicious confidence games. Minor, usually less malicious examples are techniques used in advertising
Advertising
Advertising is a form of communication used to persuade an audience to take some action with respect to products, ideas, or services. Most commonly, the desired result is to drive consumer behavior with respect to a commercial offering, although political and ideological advertising is also common...
and other propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda is a form of communication that is aimed at influencing the attitude of a community toward some cause or position so as to benefit oneself or one's group....
whereby a small gift of some kind is proffered with the expectation of producing a desire on the part of the recipient to reciprocate in some way, for example by purchasing a product, making a donation, or becoming more receptive to a line of argument. These minor examples include gifts of stickers and pens distributed by charities and flowers handed out by members of the Hare Krishna
International Society for Krishna Consciousness
The International Society for Krishna Consciousness , known colloquially as the Hare Krishna movement, is a Gaudiya Vaishnava religious organization. It was founded in 1966 in New York City by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada...
group.
In organizational research
Perceived organizational supportPerceived organizational support
Perceived Organizational Support is the degree to which employees believe that their organization values their contributions and cares about their well-being ....
(POS) and Perceived psychological contract violation
Perceived psychological contract violation
Perceived psychological contract violation is a construct that regards employees’ feelings of disappointment arising from their belief that their organization has broken its work-related promises , and is generally thought to be the organization’s contribution to a negative reciprocity dynamic,...
(PPCV) are the two most common measures of the reciprocity norm in organizational research. POS is the degree to which employees’ believe that their organization values their contributions and cares about their well-being (Eisenberger, Huntington, Huntington, & Sowa, 1986). POS is generally thought to be the organization’s contribution to a positive reciprocity dynamic with employees, as employees tend to perform better to pay back POS (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). PPCV is a construct that regards employees’ feelings of disappointment (ranging from minor frustration to betrayal) arising from their belief that their organization has broken its work-related promises (Morrison & Robinson, 1997), is generally thought to be the organization’s contribution to a negative reciprocity dynamic, as employees tend to perform more poorly to pay back PPCV (Robinson, 1996; Robinson, Kraatz, & Rousseau, 1994; Turnley & Feldman, 1999).
David R. Hekman
David R. Hekman
David R. Hekman is an assistant professor of management at the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee.- Early life and education :A Michigan native, Hekman received his Bachelor of Business Administration in 2000 at Grand Valley State University, where he was voted "Outstanding Finance Student of the...
and colleagues (2009) recently found that professional employees (e.g. doctors, lawyers) are most likely to repay POS with better performance when such workers have high levels of organizational identification
Organizational identification
-Definitions of Identification and Organizational Identification:Phillip Tompkins one was of the first to use the phrase 'organizational identification' and is a pioneer in the study of organizational communication . Simon has also been given credit for establishing organizational identification...
combined with low levels of professional identification
Professional identification
Professional Identification is a type of social identification and is the sense of oneness individuals have with a profession and the degree to which individuals define themselves as profession members....
. They also found that professional employees are most forgiving of PPCV when they have high levels of organizational identification
Organizational identification
-Definitions of Identification and Organizational Identification:Phillip Tompkins one was of the first to use the phrase 'organizational identification' and is a pioneer in the study of organizational communication . Simon has also been given credit for establishing organizational identification...
combined with low levels of professional identification
Professional identification
Professional Identification is a type of social identification and is the sense of oneness individuals have with a profession and the degree to which individuals define themselves as profession members....
.