Musonius Rufus
Encyclopedia
Gaius Musonius Rufus, was a Roman Stoic
philosopher of the 1st century AD. He taught philosophy in Rome
during the reign of Nero
, as consequence of which he was sent into exile in 65 AD, only returning to Rome under Galba
. He was allowed to stay in Rome when Vespasian
banished all the other philosophers from the city in 71 AD, although he was eventually banished anyway, only returning after Vespasian's death. A collection of extracts of his lectures still survive. He is also remembered for being the teacher of Epictetus
.
, Etruria
about 20-30 AD. He was already famous in Rome
by the time of Nero, where he taught Stoic
philosophy. He followed Rubellius Plautus
into exile when Plautus was banished by Nero (60 AD). He returned to Rome after Plautus' death (62 AD), but as a consequence of his practising and teaching Stoicism
, he became an object of suspicion and dislike at Nero
's court, and was accordingly banished to the island of Gyarus (65 AD) on a trumped-up charge of participation in Piso
's conspiracy. He returned under Galba
(68 AD). When Marcus Antonius Primus
, the general of Vespasian
, was marching upon Rome
(69 AD), he joined the ambassadors that were sent by Vitellius
to the victorious general, and going among the soldiers of the latter, preached about the blessings of peace and the dangers of war, but was soon made to stop. When the party of Vitellius gained the upper hand, Musonius was able to accuse, and obtain the conviction of, Publius Egnatius Celer
, the Stoic philosopher who had condemned Barea Soranus
. It was perhaps about this time that Musonius taught Epictetus
, his most famous student. So highly was Musonius esteemed in Rome that Vespasian allowed him to remain in Rome when the other philosophers were banished from the city (71 AD), but eventually he was exiled anyway (perhaps around 75 AD), only returning after Vespasian's death (79 AD). As to his death, we know only that he was dead by 101 AD, when Pliny
speaks of his son-in-law Artemidorus.
states that there are "speeches about philosophy bearing his name," and mentions letters to Apollonius of Tyana
. The letters that survive are certainly not authentic. It is unknown whether Musonius wrote anything for publication. His philosophical opinions were collected by two of his students. One collection of Discourses, by a certain Lucius, form the basis of the 21 lengthy extracts preserved by Stobaeus
. A second collection was compiled by one Pollio; it has been lost, but some fragments survive in quotations by later writers.
The titles of the 21 discourses (Cora Lutz edition) are as follows:
, is marked by its strong practical tendency. Philosophy, which he wanted everyone to cultivate, is not a mere matter of words, of instruction, or of the school; but everyone by their own reflection and practice may pursue for themselves. He considers it becoming in a philosopher to wear the philosopher's robe, to allow the hair
to grow, and to retire from society. At the same time he is convinced of the power of philosophy over the minds of people; by it he hopes to heal all the corruption of the human mind. His philosophy consists entirely of the rules for the conduct of life; all knowledge ought to be serviceable to action. He does not reject logic
: he regards it as a proof of a weak mind to decline to examine the fallacy
which perplexes it; yet at the same time he expresses his disgust at the multitude of dogmas which fed the vanity of the sophists. He gives only a little attention to the physical doctrines
of the Stoics; he asserts that the gods know all things without need of reasoning, since to them nothing can be obscure or unknown. The human soul he considers to be akin to the gods, and agrees with other Stoics that the soul is material, which after being corrupted by bodily influence, may be again purified and cleansed. The liberty of the rational soul is strongly asserted by him.
Musonius pays much more attention to ethics
than logic or physics; for he holds that philosophy is nothing else than an investigation and practice of what is becoming and obligatory; and philosophy, he says, is merely the pursuit of a virtuous life. He requires that all people, both men and woman should cultivate philosophy as the only sure road to virtue. He agrees that it is easy to follow one's own nature, and the only great impediment which he can find to a truly moral life is the prejudices with which the mind
is filled from childhood
, and the evil habits confirmed by practices. Thus he regards philosophy as the mental art of healing, and lays great stress on the practice of virtue, preferring practice to precept. He distinguishes two kinds of practice: the exercise of the mind in reflection and the adoption of good rules in life, and the endurance of bodily pains which affect both the soul and the body.
A life lived according to nature consists in social, friendly sentiments and temper, and in contentment with what will simply alleviate the primary needs of nature. He combats all selfishness
, and regards marriage
not merely as becoming and natural, but as the principle of the family and state, and the preservation of the whole human race
. He zealously protests against the exposure of children
as an unnatural custom, and at every opportunity recommends the practice of benevolence. His precepts for the simple life are carefully detailed, and he gives precise regulations for diet
, the care of the body, clothing
, and even furniture
. Thus he recommends that the hair should be allowed to grow long and not cut too close; and he honours the beard
on the basis that the hair was provided by nature for covering the body. He forbids meat, and prefers food which is furnished and offered by nature to that which requires the art of cooking.
Musonius Rufus expressed a progressive view of the role of women in philosophy, arguing that because men's and women's capacity to understand virtue was the same, both should be trained in philosophy.
STOIC
STOIC was a variant of Forth.It started out at the MIT and Harvard Biomedical Engineering Centre in Boston, and was written in the mid 1970s by Jonathan Sachs...
philosopher of the 1st century AD. He taught philosophy in Rome
Rome
Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...
during the reign of Nero
Nero
Nero , was Roman Emperor from 54 to 68, and the last in the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Nero was adopted by his great-uncle Claudius to become his heir and successor, and succeeded to the throne in 54 following Claudius' death....
, as consequence of which he was sent into exile in 65 AD, only returning to Rome under Galba
Galba
Galba , was Roman Emperor for seven months from 68 to 69. Galba was the governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, and made a bid for the throne during the rebellion of Julius Vindex...
. He was allowed to stay in Rome when Vespasian
Vespasian
Vespasian , was Roman Emperor from 69 AD to 79 AD. Vespasian was the founder of the Flavian dynasty, which ruled the Empire for a quarter century. Vespasian was descended from a family of equestrians, who rose into the senatorial rank under the Emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty...
banished all the other philosophers from the city in 71 AD, although he was eventually banished anyway, only returning after Vespasian's death. A collection of extracts of his lectures still survive. He is also remembered for being the teacher of Epictetus
Epictetus
Epictetus was a Greek sage and Stoic philosopher. He was born a slave at Hierapolis, Phrygia , and lived in Rome until banishment when he went to Nicopolis in northwestern Greece where he lived the rest of his life. His teachings were noted down and published by his pupil Arrian in his Discourses...
.
Life
The son of a Roman eques of the name of Capito, Musonius Rufus was born in VolsiniiVolsinii
Volsinii or Vulsinii , is the name of two ancient cities of Etruria, one situated on the shore of Lacus Volsiniensis , and the other on the Via Clodia, between Clusium and Forum Cassii...
, Etruria
Etruria
Etruria—usually referred to in Greek and Latin source texts as Tyrrhenia—was a region of Central Italy, an area that covered part of what now are Tuscany, Latium, Emilia-Romagna, and Umbria. A particularly noteworthy work dealing with Etruscan locations is D. H...
about 20-30 AD. He was already famous in Rome
Rome
Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...
by the time of Nero, where he taught Stoic
STOIC
STOIC was a variant of Forth.It started out at the MIT and Harvard Biomedical Engineering Centre in Boston, and was written in the mid 1970s by Jonathan Sachs...
philosophy. He followed Rubellius Plautus
Rubellius Plautus
Gaius Rubellius Plautus was a Roman noble and a political rival of Emperor Nero. Through his mother Julia, he was a relative of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. He was the grandson of Drusus , and the great-grandson of Tiberius and his brother Drusus...
into exile when Plautus was banished by Nero (60 AD). He returned to Rome after Plautus' death (62 AD), but as a consequence of his practising and teaching Stoicism
Stoicism
Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early . The Stoics taught that destructive emotions resulted from errors in judgment, and that a sage, or person of "moral and intellectual perfection," would not suffer such emotions.Stoics were concerned...
, he became an object of suspicion and dislike at Nero
Nero
Nero , was Roman Emperor from 54 to 68, and the last in the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Nero was adopted by his great-uncle Claudius to become his heir and successor, and succeeded to the throne in 54 following Claudius' death....
's court, and was accordingly banished to the island of Gyarus (65 AD) on a trumped-up charge of participation in Piso
Gaius Calpurnius Piso
Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso was a Roman senator in the 1st century. He was the focal figure in the Pisonian Conspiracy of 65 AD, the most famous and wide-ranging plot against the throne of Emperor Nero.-Character and early life:...
's conspiracy. He returned under Galba
Galba
Galba , was Roman Emperor for seven months from 68 to 69. Galba was the governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, and made a bid for the throne during the rebellion of Julius Vindex...
(68 AD). When Marcus Antonius Primus
Marcus Antonius Primus
Marcus Antonius Primus was a Roman Empire general.Primus was born at Tolosa in Gaul. During the reign of Nero, he was resident in Rome and a member of the Senate, from which he was expelled for conspiring to forge a will with Valerius Fabianus, and was banished from the city...
, the general of Vespasian
Vespasian
Vespasian , was Roman Emperor from 69 AD to 79 AD. Vespasian was the founder of the Flavian dynasty, which ruled the Empire for a quarter century. Vespasian was descended from a family of equestrians, who rose into the senatorial rank under the Emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty...
, was marching upon Rome
Rome
Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...
(69 AD), he joined the ambassadors that were sent by Vitellius
Vitellius
Vitellius , was Roman Emperor for eight months, from 16 April to 22 December 69. Vitellius was acclaimed Emperor following the quick succession of the previous emperors Galba and Otho, in a year of civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors...
to the victorious general, and going among the soldiers of the latter, preached about the blessings of peace and the dangers of war, but was soon made to stop. When the party of Vitellius gained the upper hand, Musonius was able to accuse, and obtain the conviction of, Publius Egnatius Celer
Publius Egnatius Celer
Publius Egnatius Celer, , was a Stoic philosopher, who as a result of being an informer in the reign of Nero, was sentenced to death in the reign of Vespasian....
, the Stoic philosopher who had condemned Barea Soranus
Barea Soranus
Quintus Marcius Barea Soranus was a Roman Senator in the 1st century. Soranus was from the gens Marcius. He was the son of Quintus Marcius Barea, who was Suffect Consul in 26 and was twice Proconsul of the Africa Province. Barea during his time in Africa was based in Leptis Magna...
. It was perhaps about this time that Musonius taught Epictetus
Epictetus
Epictetus was a Greek sage and Stoic philosopher. He was born a slave at Hierapolis, Phrygia , and lived in Rome until banishment when he went to Nicopolis in northwestern Greece where he lived the rest of his life. His teachings were noted down and published by his pupil Arrian in his Discourses...
, his most famous student. So highly was Musonius esteemed in Rome that Vespasian allowed him to remain in Rome when the other philosophers were banished from the city (71 AD), but eventually he was exiled anyway (perhaps around 75 AD), only returning after Vespasian's death (79 AD). As to his death, we know only that he was dead by 101 AD, when Pliny
Pliny the Younger
Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, born Gaius Caecilius or Gaius Caecilius Cilo , better known as Pliny the Younger, was a lawyer, author, and magistrate of Ancient Rome. Pliny's uncle, Pliny the Elder, helped raise and educate him...
speaks of his son-in-law Artemidorus.
Writings
The SudaSuda
The Suda or Souda is a massive 10th century Byzantine encyclopedia of the ancient Mediterranean world, formerly attributed to an author called Suidas. It is an encyclopedic lexicon, written in Greek, with 30,000 entries, many drawing from ancient sources that have since been lost, and often...
states that there are "speeches about philosophy bearing his name," and mentions letters to Apollonius of Tyana
Apollonius of Tyana
Apollonius of Tyana was a Greek Neopythagorean philosopher from the town of Tyana in the Roman province of Cappadocia in Asia Minor. Little is certainly known about him...
. The letters that survive are certainly not authentic. It is unknown whether Musonius wrote anything for publication. His philosophical opinions were collected by two of his students. One collection of Discourses, by a certain Lucius, form the basis of the 21 lengthy extracts preserved by Stobaeus
Stobaeus
Joannes Stobaeus , from Stobi in Macedonia, was the compiler of a valuable series of extracts from Greek authors. The work was originally divided into two volumes containing two books each...
. A second collection was compiled by one Pollio; it has been lost, but some fragments survive in quotations by later writers.
The titles of the 21 discourses (Cora Lutz edition) are as follows:
- That There is No Need of Giving Many Proofs for One Problem
- That Man is Born with an Inclination Toward Virtue
- That Women Too Should Study Philosophy
- Should Daughters Receive the Same Education as Sons?
- Which is more Effective, Theory or Practice?
- On Training
- That One Should Disdain Hardships
- That Kings Also Should Study Philosophy
- That Exile is not an Evil
- Will the Philosopher Prosecute Anyone for Personal Injury?
- What means of Livelihood is Appropriate for a Philosopher?
- On Sexual Indulgence
- What is the Chief End of Marriage
- Is Marriage a Handicap for the Pursuit of Philosophy?
- Should Every Child that is Born be Raised?
- Must One Obey One's Parents under all Circumstances?
- What is the Best Viaticum for Old Age?
- On Food
- On Clothing and Shelter
- On Furnishings
- On Cutting the Hair
Philosophy
His philosophy, which is in many respects identical with that of his pupil, EpictetusEpictetus
Epictetus was a Greek sage and Stoic philosopher. He was born a slave at Hierapolis, Phrygia , and lived in Rome until banishment when he went to Nicopolis in northwestern Greece where he lived the rest of his life. His teachings were noted down and published by his pupil Arrian in his Discourses...
, is marked by its strong practical tendency. Philosophy, which he wanted everyone to cultivate, is not a mere matter of words, of instruction, or of the school; but everyone by their own reflection and practice may pursue for themselves. He considers it becoming in a philosopher to wear the philosopher's robe, to allow the hair
Hair
Hair is a filamentous biomaterial, that grows from follicles found in the dermis. Found exclusively in mammals, hair is one of the defining characteristics of the mammalian class....
to grow, and to retire from society. At the same time he is convinced of the power of philosophy over the minds of people; by it he hopes to heal all the corruption of the human mind. His philosophy consists entirely of the rules for the conduct of life; all knowledge ought to be serviceable to action. He does not reject logic
Logic
In philosophy, Logic is the formal systematic study of the principles of valid inference and correct reasoning. Logic is used in most intellectual activities, but is studied primarily in the disciplines of philosophy, mathematics, semantics, and computer science...
: he regards it as a proof of a weak mind to decline to examine the fallacy
Fallacy
In logic and rhetoric, a fallacy is usually an incorrect argumentation in reasoning resulting in a misconception or presumption. By accident or design, fallacies may exploit emotional triggers in the listener or interlocutor , or take advantage of social relationships between people...
which perplexes it; yet at the same time he expresses his disgust at the multitude of dogmas which fed the vanity of the sophists. He gives only a little attention to the physical doctrines
Stoic physics
Stoic physics refers to the natural philosophy adopted by the Stoic philosophers of ancient Greece and Rome used to explain the natural processes at work in the universe. To the Stoics the universe is a single pantheistic God, but one which is also a material substance. The primitive substance of...
of the Stoics; he asserts that the gods know all things without need of reasoning, since to them nothing can be obscure or unknown. The human soul he considers to be akin to the gods, and agrees with other Stoics that the soul is material, which after being corrupted by bodily influence, may be again purified and cleansed. The liberty of the rational soul is strongly asserted by him.
Musonius pays much more attention to ethics
Ethics
Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy that addresses questions about morality—that is, concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime, etc.Major branches of ethics include:...
than logic or physics; for he holds that philosophy is nothing else than an investigation and practice of what is becoming and obligatory; and philosophy, he says, is merely the pursuit of a virtuous life. He requires that all people, both men and woman should cultivate philosophy as the only sure road to virtue. He agrees that it is easy to follow one's own nature, and the only great impediment which he can find to a truly moral life is the prejudices with which the mind
Mind
The concept of mind is understood in many different ways by many different traditions, ranging from panpsychism and animism to traditional and organized religious views, as well as secular and materialist philosophies. Most agree that minds are constituted by conscious experience and intelligent...
is filled from childhood
Childhood
Childhood is the age span ranging from birth to adolescence. In developmental psychology, childhood is divided up into the developmental stages of toddlerhood , early childhood , middle childhood , and adolescence .- Age ranges of childhood :The term childhood is non-specific and can imply a...
, and the evil habits confirmed by practices. Thus he regards philosophy as the mental art of healing, and lays great stress on the practice of virtue, preferring practice to precept. He distinguishes two kinds of practice: the exercise of the mind in reflection and the adoption of good rules in life, and the endurance of bodily pains which affect both the soul and the body.
A life lived according to nature consists in social, friendly sentiments and temper, and in contentment with what will simply alleviate the primary needs of nature. He combats all selfishness
Selfishness
Selfishness denotes an excessive or exclusive concern with oneself, and as such it exceeds mere self interest or self concern. Insofar as a decision maker knowingly burdens or harms others for personal gain, the decision is selfish. In contrast, self-interest is more general...
, and regards marriage
Marriage
Marriage is a social union or legal contract between people that creates kinship. It is an institution in which interpersonal relationships, usually intimate and sexual, are acknowledged in a variety of ways, depending on the culture or subculture in which it is found...
not merely as becoming and natural, but as the principle of the family and state, and the preservation of the whole human race
Human Race
Human Race refers to the Human species.Human race may also refer to:*The Human Race, 79th episode of YuYu Hakusho* Human Race Theatre Company of Dayton Ohio* Human Race Machine, a computer graphics device...
. He zealously protests against the exposure of children
Infanticide
Infanticide or infant homicide is the killing of a human infant. Neonaticide, a killing within 24 hours of a baby's birth, is most commonly done by the mother.In many past societies, certain forms of infanticide were considered permissible...
as an unnatural custom, and at every opportunity recommends the practice of benevolence. His precepts for the simple life are carefully detailed, and he gives precise regulations for diet
Diet (nutrition)
In nutrition, diet is the sum of food consumed by a person or other organism. Dietary habits are the habitual decisions an individual or culture makes when choosing what foods to eat. With the word diet, it is often implied the use of specific intake of nutrition for health or weight-management...
, the care of the body, clothing
Clothing
Clothing refers to any covering for the human body that is worn. The wearing of clothing is exclusively a human characteristic and is a feature of nearly all human societies...
, and even furniture
Furniture
Furniture is the mass noun for the movable objects intended to support various human activities such as seating and sleeping in beds, to hold objects at a convenient height for work using horizontal surfaces above the ground, or to store things...
. Thus he recommends that the hair should be allowed to grow long and not cut too close; and he honours the beard
Beard
A beard is the collection of hair that grows on the chin, cheeks and neck of human beings. Usually, only pubescent or adult males are able to grow beards. However, women with hirsutism may develop a beard...
on the basis that the hair was provided by nature for covering the body. He forbids meat, and prefers food which is furnished and offered by nature to that which requires the art of cooking.
Musonius Rufus expressed a progressive view of the role of women in philosophy, arguing that because men's and women's capacity to understand virtue was the same, both should be trained in philosophy.
Translations
- Cora Lutz, (1947), Musonius Rufus: The Roman Socrates. Printed in: Yale Classical Studies, Volume X. Edited by A. R. Bellinger. Yale University Press.
- Cynthia King, (2011), Musonius Rufus: Lectures and Sayings. Edited by William B. Irvine. CreateSpace. ISBN 978-1456459666
Studies
- J. T. Dillon, (2004), Musonius Rufus and Education in the Good Life: A Model of Teaching and Living Virtue. University Press of America. ISBN 0-761-82902-4