Melle Mel
Encyclopedia
Grandmaster Mele Mel also known as Melle Mel (icon), is an American
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...

 hip-hop musician — one of the pioneers of old school hip hop
Old school hip hop
Old school hip hop describes the earliest commercially recorded hip hop music , and the music in the period preceding it from which it was directly descended . Old school hip hop is said to end around 1983 or 1984 with the emergence of Run–D.M.C., the first new school hip hop group...

 as lead rapper and main songwriter for Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five
Grandmaster Flash and The Furious Five
Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in 1978. Composed of one DJ and five rappers Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in...

.

Biography

Melvin Glover was the first rapper ever to call himself "MC" (Master of Ceremony). Other Furious Five members included his brother The Kidd Creole (Nathaniel Glover), Scorpio (Eddie Morris), Rahiem (Guy Todd Williams) & Cowboy (Keith Wiggins). While a member of the group, Cowboy created the term "hip-hop" while teasing a friend who had just joined the US Army, by scat singing
Scat singing
In vocal jazz, scat singing is vocal improvisation with wordless vocables, nonsense syllables or without words at all. Scat singing gives singers the ability to sing improvised melodies and rhythms, to create the equivalent of an instrumental solo using their voice.- Structure and syllable choice...

 the words "hip/hop/hip/hop" in a way that mimicked the rhythmic cadence of marching soldiers.

Grandmaster Flash & The Furious Five began recording for Enjoy Records and released "Superrappin'" in 1979. They later moved on to Sugarhill Records and were popular on the R&B charts with party songs, like "Freedom" and The Birthday Party". They released numerous singles, gaining a gold disc for "Freedom," and also toured. In 1982 Melle Mel began to turn to more socially aware subject matter, in particular the Reagan
Ronald Reagan
Ronald Wilson Reagan was the 40th President of the United States , the 33rd Governor of California and, prior to that, a radio, film and television actor....

 administration's economic (Reaganomics
Reaganomics
Reaganomics refers to the economic policies promoted by the U.S. President Ronald Reagan during the 1980s, also known as supply-side economics and called trickle-down economics, particularly by critics...

) and drug
Approved drug
In the United States, the FDA approves drugs. Before a drug can be prescribed, it must undergo an extensive FDA approval process. This process involves first testing the drug on animals or in medical labs. If found to be safe by the FDA and approved for the next phase of study, the drug is then...

 policies, and their effect on the black community. A song entitled "The Message" became an instant classic and one of the first glimmers of conscious hip-hop. Mel recorded a rap over session musician Duke Bootee
Duke Bootee
Duke Bootee was an early hip hop and rap producer, who produced some of the most early and important rap records His perhaps most well-known single was "The Message". Produced for Sugar Hill Records, this record featured legendary rapper Melle Mel and Duke Bootee...

's instrumental track "The Jungle". Some of Mel's lyrics on "The Message" were taken directly from "Supperrappin'". Other than Melle Mel, no members of the Grandmaster Flash & The Furious Five actually appear on the record. Bootee also contributed vocals (Rahiem was to later lip-sync Bootee's parts in the music video). "The Message" went platinum in less than a month and went on to become arguably the greatest record in hip-hop history. It was the first hip-hop record ever to be added to the United States National Archive of Historic Recordings. Mel would also go on to write songs about struggling life in New York City
New York City
New York is the most populous city in the United States and the center of the New York Metropolitan Area, one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world. New York exerts a significant impact upon global commerce, finance, media, art, fashion, research, technology, education, and...

 ("New York, New York"), and making it through life in general ("Survival (The Message 2)"). Grandmaster Flash split from the group after contract disputes between Mele Mel and their promoter Sylvia Robinson
Sylvia Robinson
Sylvia Robinson was an American singer, musician, record producer, and record label executive, most notably known for her work as founder/CEO of the hip hop label Sugar Hill Records. She is credited as the driving force behind two landmark singles in the genre...

 in regard to royalties
Royalties
Royalties are usage-based payments made by one party to another for the right to ongoing use of an asset, sometimes an intellectual property...

 for "The Message". When Flash filed a lawsuit against Sugar Hill Records, their label, the factions of The Furious Five parted.

Mel became known as "Grandmaster Melle Mel" and the leader of the Furious Five. The group went on to produce the anti-drug song "White Lines (Don't Don't Do It)
White Lines (Don't Don't Do It)
"White Lines " is a song by Grandmaster Melle Mel, released as a 12" in 1983 on Sugar Hill Records. The song, which warns against the dangers of cocaine, addiction, and drug smuggling, is one of Melle Mel's signature tracks...

" (the unofficial music video starred up-and-coming actor Laurence Fishburne
Laurence Fishburne
Laurence John Fishburne III is an American film and stage actor, playwright, director, and producer. He is perhaps best known for his roles as Morpheus in the Matrix science fiction film trilogy, as Cowboy Curtis on the 1980's television show Pee-wee's Playhouse, and as singer-musician Ike Turner...

 and was directed by then unknown film student Spike Lee
Spike Lee
Shelton Jackson "Spike" Lee is an American film director, producer, writer, and actor. His production company, 40 Acres & A Mule Filmworks, has produced over 35 films since 1983....

). The record was falsely credited to "Grandmaster + Melle Mel" by Sugarhill Records in order to fool the public into thinking Grandmaster Flash had participated on the record. Mel then gained higher success appearing in the movie Beat Street
Beat Street
Beat Street is a 1984 drama film, following Wild Style in featuring New York City hip hop culture of the early 1980s; breakdancing, DJing, and graffiti.-Plot:...

, with a song based on the movie's title. He became the first rap artist ever to win a Grammy award for "Record of the Year" after performing a memorable rap on Chaka Khan
Chaka Khan
Chaka Khan , frequently known as the Queen of Funk, is a 10-time Grammy Award winning American singer-songwriter who gained fame in the 1970s as the frontwoman and focal point of the funk band Rufus. While still a member of the group in 1978, Khan embarked on a successful solo career...

's smash hit song "I Feel for You
I Feel for You
"I Feel for You" is a song written by Prince that originally appeared on his 1979 self-titled album. It became a hit single in 1984 for female R&B singer Chaka Khan, appearing on her album, which was also called I Feel for You...

" which introduced hip-hop to the mainstream R&B audience. Grandmaster Melle Mel & The Furious Five had further hits with "Step Off", "Pump Me Up", "King of the Streets", "Jesse", and "Vice", the latter being released on the soundtrack to the TV show Miami Vice
Miami Vice
Miami Vice is an American television series produced by Michael Mann for NBC. The series starred Don Johnson and Philip Michael Thomas as two Metro-Dade Police Department detectives working undercover in Miami. It ran for five seasons on NBC from 1984–1989...

. "Jesse" was a highly political song which urged people to vote for then presidential candidate Jesse Jackson
Jesse Jackson
Jesse Louis Jackson, Sr. is an African-American civil rights activist and Baptist minister. He was a candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1984 and 1988 and served as shadow senator for the District of Columbia from 1991 to 1997. He was the founder of both entities that merged to...

.

In 1988, after an almost 4 year layoff, Mel and Flash reunited and released the album "On The Strength", but with up-and-coming new school artists such as Eric B. & Rakim
Eric B. & Rakim
Eric B. & Rakim were a hip-hop duo composed of DJ Eric Barrier and MC Rakim .Hailing from Long Island, New York, the pair are generally considered by hip hop enthusiasts to be one of the most influential and innovative groups in the genre...

, DJ Jazzy Jeff & The Fresh Prince
DJ Jazzy Jeff & the Fresh Prince
DJ Jazzy Jeff & The Fresh Prince is a hip hop duo from West Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Vocalist Will Smith met Jeff Townes while trying to make a name for himself in West Philadelphia's local hip hop scene. After joining forces with Clarence Holmes the team members became local celebrities...

, Public Enemy, Boogie Down Productions
Boogie Down Productions
Boogie Down Productions was a hip hop group that was originally composed of KRS-One, D-Nice, and DJ Scott La Rock. DJ Scott La Rock was murdered on August 27, 1987, months after the release of BDP's debut album, Criminal Minded. The name of the group, Boogie Down, derives from a nickname for the...

, and Big Daddy Kane
Big Daddy Kane
Antonio Hardy better known by his stage name Big Daddy Kane, is an American rapper who started his career in 1986 as a member of the rap group the Juice Crew. He is widely considered to be one of the most influential and skilled MC's in Hip Hop...

 dominating the hip-hop market, the album failed miserably. Mel performed with The King Dream Chorus and Holiday Crew on "King Holiday" aimed at having Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.'s birthday declared a national holiday. Mel also performed with Artists United Against Apartheid
Artists United Against Apartheid
Artists United Against Apartheid was a 1985 protest group founded by activist and performer Steven Van Zandt and record producer Arthur Baker to protest apartheid in South Africa...

 on the anti-apartheid song Sun City
Sun City (song)
"Sun City" is a 1985 protest song written by Steven Van Zandt, produced by Van Zandt and Arthur Baker and recorded by Artists United Against Apartheid to convey opposition to the South African policy of apartheid...

 aimed at discouraging other artists from performing in South Africa until that government ended its policy of apartheid. Mel ended the decade by winning two more Grammy awards for his work on Quincy Jones "Back On The Block" & "Q - The Autobiography of Quincy Jones" albums.

In 1996, he contributed vocals to the US edition of Cher
Cher
Cher is an American recording artist, television personality, actress, director, record producer and philanthropist. Referred to as the Goddess of Pop, she has won an Academy Award, a Grammy Award, an Emmy Award, three Golden Globes and a Cannes Film Festival Award among others for her work in...

's hit "One By One". Their version is only available on the maxi CD format.

In 1997, Melle Mel signed to Straight Game Records and released Right Now. This album featured Scorpio from the Furious Five and Rondo. The album barely sold at all in the US and the UK. This album took more of a harder rap style.

In 2001, he released the song "On Lock" with Rondo on the soundtrack of the movie Blazin under the name Die Hard. Die Hard released an album of the same name in 2002 on 7PRecords.

On November 14, 2006, Mel collaborated with author Cricket Casey and released the children's book "The Portal In The Park", which comes with a bonus CD of his rapped narration. It also features two songs by a then unknown Lady Gaga
Lady GaGa
Stefani Joanne Angelina Germanotta , better known by her stage name Lady Gaga, is an American singer and songwriter. Born and raised in New York City, she primarily studied at the Convent of the Sacred Heart and briefly attended New York University's Tisch School of the Arts before withdrawing to...

. The book was re-released in 2010. She performs with Mel on "World Family Tree" and "The Fountain of Truth". Also in 2006, Melle Mel attended professional wrestling school and in 2007 stated in an interview with allhiphop.com that "I'm going to try to take some of John Cena
John Cena
John Felix Anthony Cena is an American professional wrestler, actor, rapper, and television personality. He is currently signed to WWE as a member of its WWE Raw brand....

's money and get with WWE
World Wrestling Entertainment
World Wrestling Entertainment, Inc. is an American publicly traded, privately controlled entertainment company dealing primarily in professional wrestling, with major revenue sources also coming from film, music, product licensing, and direct product sales...

 and do my thing".

On January 30, 2007, Mel released his first ever solo album, Muscles The first single and music video was "M3 - The New Message". On March 12, 2007, Melle Mel and The Furious Five (joined by DJ Grandmaster Flash
Grandmaster Flash
Joseph Saddler better known as King Grandmaster Flash, is an American hip hop musician and DJ; one of the pioneers of hip-hop DJing, cutting, and mixing....

) became the first rap group ever inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame
Rock and Roll Hall of Fame
The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum is a museum located on the shore of Lake Erie in downtown Cleveland, Ohio, United States. It is dedicated to archiving the history of some of the best-known and most influential artists, producers, engineers and others who have, in some major way,...

. In his acceptance speech, Mel implored the recording industry members in attendance to do more to restore Hip Hip to the culture of music and art that it once was, rather than the culture of violence that it has become. He added, "I've never been shot, I've never been arrested, and I've been doing Hip Hop all my life. I can't change things all by myself. We need everybody's help, so let's do it and get this thing done."

On October 10, 2008 Mel appeared on Bronx based culinary adventure show ‘Bronx Flavor’ alongside host Baron Ambrosia
Baron ambrosia
Baron Ambrosia is the alter ego of Bronx-based underground filmmaker Justin Fornal. The character is a self-proclaimed "quaffer of culinary consciousness" and travels around New York City, mostly in The Bronx, documenting various ethnic cultures and their indigenous cuisines, represented typically...

. In the episode entitled Night at the Bodega he appears as a spiritual mentor to sway the Baron from his over-indulgent ways and get him on the right path to success.

In April 2011, it was revealed that he would take part in a new Hiphop/Pro Wrestling collaboration, the Urban Wrestling Federation with taping of the first bout "First Blood" taking place in June 2011.

Albums

  • 1982 The Message - (with 'Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five
    Grandmaster Flash and The Furious Five
    Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in 1978. Composed of one DJ and five rappers Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in...

    ')
  • 1984 Grandmaster Melle Mel and the Furious Five
    Grandmaster Melle Mel and the Furious Five
    Grandmaster Melle Mel and the Furious Five was released in 1984 by Sugarhill Records after the split between Grandmaster Flash and Melle Mel. For this album, Melle Mel kept the group name 'the Furious Five' and used the title 'Grandmaster'. Rappers Cowboy and Scorpio left with Melle Mel although...

    (aka Work Party)
  • 1985 Stepping Off - (as 'grandmaster Melle Mel and the Furious Five')
  • 1988 On the Strength
    On the Strength
    On the Strength is the reunion album by Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five. Released in 1988, it was the full line-up’s last album together. Although certainly contributing to the album itself, Cowboy , was not present for the album or single photo shoots...

    - (with 'Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five
    Grandmaster Flash and The Furious Five
    Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in 1978. Composed of one DJ and five rappers Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in...

    ')
  • 1989 Piano - (as 'Grandmaster Melle Mel and the Furious Five')
  • 1997 Right Now - (As 'Grandmaster Mele-Mel & Scorpio')
  • 2001 On Lock - (As 'Die Hard')
  • 2006 The Portal In The Park - (As 'Grandmaster Mele Mel' with appearance by Lady Gaga)
  • 2007 Muscles
    Muscles (album)
    Muscles is the debut solo album by hip hop musician, Mele Mel, despite being involved in the rap music industry since 1978. The album was released January 23, 2007 for Power House Entertainment and was produced by Mele Mel and Frank G. The album gained positive reviews but was a commercial...

    - (As 'Grandmaster Mele Mel')
  • 2009 Hip Hop Anniversary Europe Tour - (As 'Grandmaster Melle Mel')

Singles

  • 1979 We Rap More Mellow - (As 'The Younger Generation')
  • 1979 Flash to the Beat - (As 'Flash and the Furious 5')
  • 1979 Supper Rappin - (As 'Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five
    Grandmaster Flash and The Furious Five
    Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in 1978. Composed of one DJ and five rappers Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in...

    ')
  • 1980 Freedom - (As 'Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five
    Grandmaster Flash and The Furious Five
    Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in 1978. Composed of one DJ and five rappers Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in...

    ')
  • 1980 The Birthday Party - (As 'Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five
    Grandmaster Flash and The Furious Five
    Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in 1978. Composed of one DJ and five rappers Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in...

    ')
  • 1981 Showdown - (As The Furious Five Meets The Sugarhill Gang)
  • 1981 It's Nasty (Genius of Love) - (As 'Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five
    Grandmaster Flash and The Furious Five
    Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in 1978. Composed of one DJ and five rappers Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in...

    ')
  • 1981 Scorpio - (As 'Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five
    Grandmaster Flash and The Furious Five
    Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in 1978. Composed of one DJ and five rappers Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in...

    ')
  • 1981 The Adventures of Grandmaster Flash on the Wheels of Steel
    The Adventures of Grandmaster Flash on the Wheels of Steel
    "The Adventures of Grandmaster Flash on the Wheels of Steel" is a single released by Grandmaster Flash in 1981. It is a live DJ mix recording of Flash scratching and mixing records from various groups using three turntables...

    - (As 'Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five
    Grandmaster Flash and The Furious Five
    Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in 1978. Composed of one DJ and five rappers Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in...

    ')
  • 1982 The Message - (As 'Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five
    Grandmaster Flash and The Furious Five
    Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in 1978. Composed of one DJ and five rappers Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in...

    ')
  • 1982 Message II (Survival) - (As 'Melle Mel & Duke Bootee')
  • 1983 New York New York - (As 'Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five
    Grandmaster Flash and The Furious Five
    Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in 1978. Composed of one DJ and five rappers Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in...

    ')
  • 1983 White Lines (Don't Don't Do It)
    White Lines (Don't Don't Do It)
    "White Lines " is a song by Grandmaster Melle Mel, released as a 12" in 1983 on Sugar Hill Records. The song, which warns against the dangers of cocaine, addiction, and drug smuggling, is one of Melle Mel's signature tracks...

    - (As 'Grandmaster & Melle Mel' / 'Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five
    Grandmaster Flash and The Furious Five
    Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in 1978. Composed of one DJ and five rappers Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in...

    ' / 'Grandmaster Flash
    Grandmaster Flash
    Joseph Saddler better known as King Grandmaster Flash, is an American hip hop musician and DJ; one of the pioneers of hip-hop DJing, cutting, and mixing....

     and Melle Mel')
  • 1984 Continuous White Lines - (Remix - as 'Grandmaster Melle Mel and the Furious Five)
  • 1984 Jesse - (As 'Grandmaster Melle Mel)
  • 1984 Beat Street Breakdown aka Beat Street - (As 'Grandmaster Melle Mel and the Furious Five')
  • 1984 Step Off - (As 'Grandmaster Melle Mel and the Furious Five')
  • 1984 We Don't Work for Free - (As 'Grandmaster Melle Mel and the Furious Five')
  • 1984 World War III - (As 'Grandmaster Melle Mel and the Furious Five' / 'Grandmaster Melle Mel')
  • 1985 King Of the Streets - (As 'Grandmaster Melle Mel')
  • 1985 Pump Me Up - (As 'Grandmaster Melle Mel and the Furious Five')
  • 1985 Vice - (As 'Grandmaster Melle Mel')
  • 1985 The Mega-Melle Mix - (As 'Melle Mel')
  • 1988 Gold - (As 'Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five
    Grandmaster Flash and The Furious Five
    Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in 1978. Composed of one DJ and five rappers Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in...

    ')
  • 1988 Magic Carpet Ride - (As 'Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five
    Grandmaster Flash and The Furious Five
    Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in 1978. Composed of one DJ and five rappers Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in...

    ')
  • 1994 Sun Don't Shine in the Hood - (Split 12" single with Da Original as 'The Furious Five')
  • 1995 The Message '95 - (Remix - as 'Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five
    Grandmaster Flash and The Furious Five
    Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in 1978. Composed of one DJ and five rappers Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in...

    '
  • 1997 The Message - (Remix - as 'Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five
    Grandmaster Flash and The Furious Five
    Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in 1978. Composed of one DJ and five rappers Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five was an influential American hip-hop group formed in the South Bronx of New York City in...

    ')
  • 1997 Mama - (As 'Grandmaster Mele-Mel & Scorpio')
  • 1997 Mr. Big Stuff - (As 'Grandmaster Mele-Mel & Scorpio')
  • 2003 Where Ya At? - (As 'Melle Mel')
  • 2007 M-3 - (As 'Grandmaster Mele Mel')
  • 2011 Markus Schulz
    Markus Schulz
    Markus Schulz, born , is a German trance music DJ and producer who resides in Miami, Florida, USA. He is best-known for his weekly radio show titled Global DJ Broadcast that airs on Digitally Imported radio, After Hours FM and other online stations...

     Presents Dakota
    Dakota
    - Ethnology and linguistics :* Sioux sub-tribes:**Eastern Dakota**Western Dakota* Dakota language, either of two regional varieties of the Sioux language- Geography :United States*North Dakota, a state*South Dakota, a state* Dakota, Illinois, a village...

     feat. Grandmaster Mele Mel & Scorpio
    Scorpio
    -Technology:* Scorpio , Roman artillery invented in 50 BC* Scorpio ROV, a class of submersible remotely operated vehicle, including the Scorpio II and Super Scorpio operated by the US and UK navies* Mahindra Scorpio, an Indian SUV...

    - Sleepwalkers

Collaborations

  • What's the Matter with Your World? - (with Van Silk) 1989
  • What Order - (with Keith LeBlanc
    Keith Leblanc
    Keith Leblanc is an American drummer and record producer, and is a member of the bands Little Axe and Tackhead.His record, "No Sell Out", was the first sample based record. His career started out on Sugar Hill Records recording with rap pioneers, Grandmaster Flash and Melle Melle...

    ) 1996
  • RSVP - (with Nikkole) 2005


In 1986 Melle Mel also made a guest appearance on the songs "MC Story" by MC Chill and Emanon (The Baby Beatbox) and the single "Susie" collaborating with Afrika Bambaataa
Afrika Bambaataa
Afrika Bambaataa is an American DJ from the South Bronx, New York who was instrumental in the early development of hip hop throughout the 1980s. Afrika Bambaataa is one of the three originators of break-beat deejaying, and is respectfully known as the "Grandfather" and the Amen Ra of Universal...

 on "Who do you think your funkin with".

External links

The source of this article is wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.  The text of this article is licensed under the GFDL.
 
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