Longue durée
Encyclopedia
The longue durée is an expression used by the French Annales School
of historical writing to designate their approach to the study of history, which gives priority to long-term historical structures over events— what François Simiand
called histoire événementielle, "eventual history"— the short term time-scale that is the domain of the chronicle
r and the journalist
; the longue durée concentrates on all-but-permanent or slowly evolving structures and substitutes for elite biographies the broader syntheses of prosopography
.
The approach, which incorporates social scientific methods, such as the recently evolved field of economic history
, into general history, was pioneered by Marc Bloch
and Lucien Febvre
in the Interwar period
. The approach was carried on by Fernand Braudel
in the second part of the century: Braudel took stock of the current status of social studies in crisis, floundering under the weight of their own successes, in an article, "Histoire et sciences sociales: La longue durée" in 1958. Among works exemplifying the longue durée Braudel remarked on was Alphonse Dupront's study of the long-standing idea in Western Europe of a crusade, which extended across diverse European societies far beyond the last days of the actual crusades, and among spheres of thought with a long life, he noted Aristotelian science
. In the longue durée of economic history, beyond, or beneath, the cycles and structural crises, lie "old attitudes of thought and action, resistant frameworks dying hard, at times against all logic." In this sense the history of the longue durée that informs Braudel's two masterworks offers a contrast to the archives-directed history that arose at the end of the 19th century and a return to the broader views of the earlier generation of Jules Michelet
, Leopold von Ranke
, Jacob Burckhardt
or Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges
.
Recent applications of the longue durée may be found in Harvard professor Robert Putnam
's and Oxford professor Bent Flyvbjerg
's studies of democracy
in Italy
and Denmark
, respectively. Both studies find that a key to adequately understand modern democracy is the understanding of centuries old, pre-modern structures of governance
and what impact these have on democracy today. Averil Cameron, in examining the Mediterranean world in Late Antiquity
concludes that "consideration of the longue durée is more helpful than the appeal to immediate causal factors." Sergio Villalobos also expressly takes the long view in his Historia del pueblo chileno.
Some Irish
geneticist
s consider that Atlantic seaboard DNA
patterns that have been unchanging for millennia as another form of longue durée.
Annales School
The Annales School is a group of historians associated with a style of historiography developed by French historians in the 20th century. It is named after its scholarly journal Annales d'histoire économique et sociale, which remains the main source of scholarship, along with many books and...
of historical writing to designate their approach to the study of history, which gives priority to long-term historical structures over events— what François Simiand
François Simiand
François Simiand was a French sociologist and economist best known as a participant in the Année Sociologique. As a member of the French Historical School of economics, Simiand predicated a rigorous factual and statistical basis for theoretical models and policies...
called histoire événementielle, "eventual history"— the short term time-scale that is the domain of the chronicle
Chronicle
Generally a chronicle is a historical account of facts and events ranged in chronological order, as in a time line. Typically, equal weight is given for historically important events and local events, the purpose being the recording of events that occurred, seen from the perspective of the...
r and the journalist
Journalist
A journalist collects and distributes news and other information. A journalist's work is referred to as journalism.A reporter is a type of journalist who researchs, writes, and reports on information to be presented in mass media, including print media , electronic media , and digital media A...
; the longue durée concentrates on all-but-permanent or slowly evolving structures and substitutes for elite biographies the broader syntheses of prosopography
Prosopography
In historical studies, prosopography is an investigation of the common characteristics of a historical group, whose individual biographies may be largely untraceable, by means of a collective study of their lives, in multiple career-line analysis...
.
The approach, which incorporates social scientific methods, such as the recently evolved field of economic history
Economic history
Economic history is the study of economies or economic phenomena in the past. Analysis in economic history is undertaken using a combination of historical methods, statistical methods and by applying economic theory to historical situations and institutions...
, into general history, was pioneered by Marc Bloch
Marc Bloch
Marc Léopold Benjamin Bloch was a French historian who cofounded the highly influential Annales School of French social history. Bloch was a quintessential modernist. An assimilated Alsatian Jew from an academic family in Paris, he was deeply affected in his youth by the Dreyfus Affair...
and Lucien Febvre
Lucien Febvre
Lucien Febvre was a French historian best known for the role he played in establishing the Annales School of history. He has designed the Encyclopédie française together with Anatole de Monzie.-Biography:...
in the Interwar period
Interwar period
Interwar period can refer to any period between two wars. The Interbellum is understood to be the period between the end of the Great War or First World War and the beginning of the Second World War in Europe....
. The approach was carried on by Fernand Braudel
Fernand Braudel
Fernand Braudel was a French historian and a leader of the Annales School. His scholarship focused on three main projects, each representing several decades of intense study: The Mediterranean , Civilization and Capitalism , and the unfinished Identity of France...
in the second part of the century: Braudel took stock of the current status of social studies in crisis, floundering under the weight of their own successes, in an article, "Histoire et sciences sociales: La longue durée" in 1958. Among works exemplifying the longue durée Braudel remarked on was Alphonse Dupront's study of the long-standing idea in Western Europe of a crusade, which extended across diverse European societies far beyond the last days of the actual crusades, and among spheres of thought with a long life, he noted Aristotelian science
Aristotelianism
Aristotelianism is a tradition of philosophy that takes its defining inspiration from the work of Aristotle. The works of Aristotle were initially defended by the members of the Peripatetic school, and, later on, by the Neoplatonists, who produced many commentaries on Aristotle's writings...
. In the longue durée of economic history, beyond, or beneath, the cycles and structural crises, lie "old attitudes of thought and action, resistant frameworks dying hard, at times against all logic." In this sense the history of the longue durée that informs Braudel's two masterworks offers a contrast to the archives-directed history that arose at the end of the 19th century and a return to the broader views of the earlier generation of Jules Michelet
Jules Michelet
Jules Michelet was a French historian. He was born in Paris to a family with Huguenot traditions.-Early life:His father was a master printer, not very prosperous, and Jules assisted him in the actual work of the press...
, Leopold von Ranke
Leopold von Ranke
Leopold von Ranke was a German historian, considered one of the founders of modern source-based history. Ranke set the standards for much of later historical writing, introducing such ideas as reliance on primary sources , an emphasis on narrative history and especially international politics .-...
, Jacob Burckhardt
Jacob Burckhardt
Carl Jacob Christoph Burckhardt was a historian of art and culture, and an influential figure in the historiography of each field. He is known as one of the major progenitors of cultural history, albeit in a form very different from how cultural history is conceived and studied in academia today...
or Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges
Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges
Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges was a French historian.Born in Paris, of Breton descent, after studying at the École Normale Supérieure he was sent to the French School at Athens in 1853, he directed some excavations in Chios, and wrote an historical account of the island.After his return he filled...
.
Recent applications of the longue durée may be found in Harvard professor Robert Putnam
Robert Putnam
Robert David Putnam is a political scientist and professor of public policy at the Harvard University John F. Kennedy School of Government. He is also visiting professor and director of the Manchester Graduate Summer Programme in Social Change, University of Manchester...
's and Oxford professor Bent Flyvbjerg
Bent Flyvbjerg
Bent Flyvbjerg is the first Chair and BT Professor of Major Programme Management at Oxford University's Saïd Business School and is Founding Director of the University's BT Centre for Major Programme Management. He was previously Professor of Planning at Aalborg University, Denmark and Chair of...
's studies of democracy
Democracy
Democracy is generally defined as a form of government in which all adult citizens have an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives. Ideally, this includes equal participation in the proposal, development and passage of legislation into law...
in Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
and Denmark
Denmark
Denmark is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. The countries of Denmark and Greenland, as well as the Faroe Islands, constitute the Kingdom of Denmark . It is the southernmost of the Nordic countries, southwest of Sweden and south of Norway, and bordered to the south by Germany. Denmark...
, respectively. Both studies find that a key to adequately understand modern democracy is the understanding of centuries old, pre-modern structures of governance
Governance
Governance is the act of governing. It relates to decisions that define expectations, grant power, or verify performance. It consists of either a separate process or part of management or leadership processes...
and what impact these have on democracy today. Averil Cameron, in examining the Mediterranean world in Late Antiquity
Late Antiquity
Late Antiquity is a periodization used by historians to describe the time of transition from Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages, in both mainland Europe and the Mediterranean world. Precise boundaries for the period are a matter of debate, but noted historian of the period Peter Brown proposed...
concludes that "consideration of the longue durée is more helpful than the appeal to immediate causal factors." Sergio Villalobos also expressly takes the long view in his Historia del pueblo chileno.
Some Irish
Ireland
Ireland is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth...
geneticist
Geneticist
A geneticist is a biologist who studies genetics, the science of genes, heredity, and variation of organisms. A geneticist can be employed as a researcher or lecturer. Some geneticists perform experiments and analyze data to interpret the inheritance of skills. A geneticist is also a Consultant or...
s consider that Atlantic seaboard DNA
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms . The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in...
patterns that have been unchanging for millennia as another form of longue durée.
Sources and further reading
- Fernand Braudel and Sarah Matthews, On History, The University of Chicago Press, 1982.
- Bent Flyvbjerg, Rationality and Power: Democracy in Practice, The University of Chicago Press, 1998.
- Robert D. Putnam with Robert Leonardi and Raffaella Y. Nanetti, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern ItalyMaking Democracy WorkMaking Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy is a 1993 book written by Robert Putnam . Published by Princeton University Press, the book's central thesis is that social capital is key to high institutional performance and the maintenance of democracy...
, Princeton University Press, 1993, ISBN 0-691-03738-8