Life chances
Encyclopedia
Life chances is a political theory of the opportunities
each individual has to improve his or her quality of life. The concept was introduced by German sociologist Max Weber
. It is a probabilistic concept, describing how likely it is, given certain factors, that an individual's life will turn out a certain way. Life chances are positively correlated
with one's social situation.
The opportunities mean the extent to which one has access to resources, both tangible ones such as food, clothing and shelter, and intangible ones such as education and health care. Quality of life comprises the individual's ability to procure goods
, have a career
and obtain inner satisfaction; in other words, the ability to satisfy one's needs.
's ideas. Both Weber and Marx agreed that economic factors were important in determining one's future, but Weber's concepts of life chances are more complex; inspired by, but different from Marx's views on social stratification
and social class
. Where for Marx the class status were the most important factor, and he correlated life chances with material wealth, Weber introduced other factors, such as social mobility
and social equality
. Other factors include those related to one socioeconomic status, such as gender
, race, and ethnicity.
While some of those factors, like age, race or gender
, are random, Weber stressed the link between life chances and the non-random elements of the three-component theory of stratification - how social class
, social status
and political affiliation impact each individual's life. In other words, individuals in certain groups
have in common a specific causal component of their life chances: they are in similar situation, which tends to imply a similar outcome to their actions. Weber notes the importance of economic factors. how the power
of those with property
, compared to those without property, gives the former great advantages over the latter.
Weber also noted that life chances are to certain extent subjective
: what an individual thinks of one's life chances will affect their actions, therefore if one feels that one can become or is a respected and valued member of society
, then it is likely to become a reality and results in one being more successful and respected than somebody without this conviction.
In terms of agency and structure, life chances represent the structure, the factors that one has no control over; whereas one's life conduct - values and beliefs, attitude to risk taking, social skills, or more genrally, free will
ed choices about one's behavior
- represent the factors one has control over. According to Weber theories, together with life conduct, life chances are responsible for one's lifestyle.
In social engineering
, life chances may have to be balanced against other goals, such as eliminating poverty
, ensuring personal freedom
or ensuring equality at birth.
The Essentials, Cengage Learning, 2009, ISBN 0495598623, Google Print, p.214
Opportunity
Opportunity may refer to:*Opportunity International - An International microfinance network that lends to the working poor*Opportunity NYC is the experimental Conditional Cash Transfer program being launched in New York City...
each individual has to improve his or her quality of life. The concept was introduced by German sociologist Max Weber
Max Weber
Karl Emil Maximilian "Max" Weber was a German sociologist and political economist who profoundly influenced social theory, social research, and the discipline of sociology itself...
. It is a probabilistic concept, describing how likely it is, given certain factors, that an individual's life will turn out a certain way. Life chances are positively correlated
Correlation
In statistics, dependence refers to any statistical relationship between two random variables or two sets of data. Correlation refers to any of a broad class of statistical relationships involving dependence....
with one's social situation.
The opportunities mean the extent to which one has access to resources, both tangible ones such as food, clothing and shelter, and intangible ones such as education and health care. Quality of life comprises the individual's ability to procure goods
Good (economics and accounting)
In economics, a good is something that is intended to satisfy some wants or needs of a consumer and thus has economic utility. It is normally used in the plural form—goods—to denote tangible commodities such as products and materials....
, have a career
Career
Career is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as a person's "course or progress through life ". It is usually considered to pertain to remunerative work ....
and obtain inner satisfaction; in other words, the ability to satisfy one's needs.
Theory
Weberian life chances can be seen as an expansion on some of Karl MarxKarl Marx
Karl Heinrich Marx was a German philosopher, economist, sociologist, historian, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. His ideas played a significant role in the development of social science and the socialist political movement...
's ideas. Both Weber and Marx agreed that economic factors were important in determining one's future, but Weber's concepts of life chances are more complex; inspired by, but different from Marx's views on social stratification
Social stratification
In sociology the social stratification is a concept of class, involving the "classification of persons into groups based on shared socio-economic conditions ... a relational set of inequalities with economic, social, political and ideological dimensions."...
and social class
Social class
Social classes are economic or cultural arrangements of groups in society. Class is an essential object of analysis for sociologists, political scientists, economists, anthropologists and social historians. In the social sciences, social class is often discussed in terms of 'social stratification'...
. Where for Marx the class status were the most important factor, and he correlated life chances with material wealth, Weber introduced other factors, such as social mobility
Social mobility
Social mobility refers to the movement of people in a population from one social class or economic level to another. It typically refers to vertical mobility -- movement of individuals or groups up from one socio-economic level to another, often by changing jobs or marrying; but can also refer to...
and social equality
Social equality
Social equality is a social state of affairs in which all people within a specific society or isolated group have the same status in a certain respect. At the very least, social equality includes equal rights under the law, such as security, voting rights, freedom of speech and assembly, and the...
. Other factors include those related to one socioeconomic status, such as gender
Gender
Gender is a range of characteristics used to distinguish between males and females, particularly in the cases of men and women and the masculine and feminine attributes assigned to them. Depending on the context, the discriminating characteristics vary from sex to social role to gender identity...
, race, and ethnicity.
While some of those factors, like age, race or gender
Gender
Gender is a range of characteristics used to distinguish between males and females, particularly in the cases of men and women and the masculine and feminine attributes assigned to them. Depending on the context, the discriminating characteristics vary from sex to social role to gender identity...
, are random, Weber stressed the link between life chances and the non-random elements of the three-component theory of stratification - how social class
Social class
Social classes are economic or cultural arrangements of groups in society. Class is an essential object of analysis for sociologists, political scientists, economists, anthropologists and social historians. In the social sciences, social class is often discussed in terms of 'social stratification'...
, social status
Social status
In sociology or anthropology, social status is the honor or prestige attached to one's position in society . It may also refer to a rank or position that one holds in a group, for example son or daughter, playmate, pupil, etc....
and political affiliation impact each individual's life. In other words, individuals in certain groups
Group (sociology)
In the social sciences a social group can be defined as two or more humans who interact with one another, share similar characteristics and collectively have a sense of unity...
have in common a specific causal component of their life chances: they are in similar situation, which tends to imply a similar outcome to their actions. Weber notes the importance of economic factors. how the power
Power (sociology)
Power is a measurement of an entity's ability to control its environment, including the behavior of other entities. The term authority is often used for power perceived as legitimate by the social structure. Power can be seen as evil or unjust, but the exercise of power is accepted as endemic to...
of those with property
Property
Property is any physical or intangible entity that is owned by a person or jointly by a group of people or a legal entity like a corporation...
, compared to those without property, gives the former great advantages over the latter.
Weber also noted that life chances are to certain extent subjective
Subjectivity
Subjectivity refers to the subject and his or her perspective, feelings, beliefs, and desires. In philosophy, the term is usually contrasted with objectivity.-Qualia:...
: what an individual thinks of one's life chances will affect their actions, therefore if one feels that one can become or is a respected and valued member of society
Society
A society, or a human society, is a group of people related to each other through persistent relations, or a large social grouping sharing the same geographical or virtual territory, subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations...
, then it is likely to become a reality and results in one being more successful and respected than somebody without this conviction.
In terms of agency and structure, life chances represent the structure, the factors that one has no control over; whereas one's life conduct - values and beliefs, attitude to risk taking, social skills, or more genrally, free will
Free will
"To make my own decisions whether I am successful or not due to uncontrollable forces" -Troy MorrisonA pragmatic definition of free willFree will is the ability of agents to make choices free from certain kinds of constraints. The existence of free will and its exact nature and definition have long...
ed choices about one's behavior
Behavior
Behavior or behaviour refers to the actions and mannerisms made by organisms, systems, or artificial entities in conjunction with its environment, which includes the other systems or organisms around as well as the physical environment...
- represent the factors one has control over. According to Weber theories, together with life conduct, life chances are responsible for one's lifestyle.
In social engineering
Social engineering (political science)
Social engineering is a discipline in political science that refers to efforts to influence popular attitudes and social behaviors on a large scale, whether by governments or private groups. In the political arena, the counterpart of social engineering is political engineering.For various reasons,...
, life chances may have to be balanced against other goals, such as eliminating poverty
Poverty
Poverty is the lack of a certain amount of material possessions or money. Absolute poverty or destitution is inability to afford basic human needs, which commonly includes clean and fresh water, nutrition, health care, education, clothing and shelter. About 1.7 billion people are estimated to live...
, ensuring personal freedom
Freedom (political)
Political freedom is a central philosophy in Western history and political thought, and one of the most important features of democratic societies...
or ensuring equality at birth.
Further reading
- Diana Kendall, Sociology in Our Times:
The Essentials, Cengage Learning, 2009, ISBN 0495598623, Google Print, p.214
- John Hughes, Wes Sharrock, Peter J Martin, Understanding Classical Sociology: Marx, Weber, Durkheim, Sage Publications Inc, 2003, ISBN 0-7619-5467-8, Google Print, p.107
- William Cockerham (ed.), The Blackwell Companion To Medical Sociology, Blackwell Publishing, 2005 Google Print, p.12
- Life Chances and Social Mobility(broken link)
- Multiple Sources of Power – Class, Status, and Party
- WEBER AND CLASS (broken link)
- Social Stratification
- Is an unstratified society possible? (broken link)
Further reading
- Max Weber, Economy and SocietyEconomy and SocietyEconomy and Society is a book by political economist and sociologist Max Weber, published posthumously in Germany in 1922 by his wife Marianne. Alongside The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, it is considered to be one of Weber's most important works...
, University of California Press, 1978, ISBN 0-520-03500-3