Learie Constantine
Encyclopedia
Learie Nicholas Constantine, Baron Constantine MBE
(21 September 1901 – 1 July 1971) was a West Indian cricket
er who played 18 Test matches
before the Second World War. He took West Indies' first wicket in Test cricket and was the team's leading all-rounder
and opening bowler
for the entirety of his career. Constantine also represented Trinidad and played professional club cricket in England for Nelson Cricket Club
where he was probably the highest paid sportsman in England. An aggressive, entertaining batsman, he scored 635 runs
in Tests at an average of 19.24. Mainly as a fast bowler he took 58 wickets at an average
of 30.10 and also held 28 catches. Following the end of his cricket career, he became involved in fighting racial discrimination in Britain through his role as a Welfare Officer during the war. For the rest of his life, he fought against racism and was involved in at least two incidents which paved the way for the Race Relations Act
in Britain. Later, he became a barrister before joining the government of Trinidad. Upon returning to England, he was initially Trinidadian High Commissioner
before assuming a variety of other roles. He was knighted
in 1962 and made a life peer
in 1969.
Born in Trinidad, Constantine established an early reputation as a promising cricketer and was selected for the West Indies 1923 tour of England. Although moderately successful, he achieved little of cricketing note in the following years. Unhappy at the lack of progress possible for black people in Trinidad, he decided to pursue a career as a professional cricketer in England. Preparing throughly, he was a great success during the West Indies' tour of England in 1928 and was awarded a professional contract with the Lancashire League club Nelson. He and his family moved to England to live in Nelson and he played for the club with great distinction between 1929 and 1938. He toured England again in 1933 and 1939, toured Australia in 1930–31 and played two further Test series in the Caribbean. While he was popular wherever he played, owing to his explosive and entertaining style, his record as a Test cricketer was less impressive than in other cricket. Nevertheless, he established a uniquely West Indian style of play. He was chosen as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year
in 1939.
When the Second World War curtailed his cricket career, Constantine worked for the Ministry of Labour and National Service as a Welfare Officer responsible for West Indians working in English factories to assist the war effort. Constantine often had to deal with racist incidents and attitudes and was awarded an MBE when his job ended in 1946. Subsequently pursuing a legal career, he qualified as a barrister in 1954 while also establishing himself as a journalist and broadcaster. He returned to Trinidad in 1954 but was soon drawn into politics. He became a founding member of the People's National Movement
which won an election and became the minister of communications for Trinidad. After a successful spell in government, he did not stand in the next election, disillusioned by party politics and returned to England as Trinidad's High Commissioner between 1961 and 1964. This post ended in controversy as he became involved in a case of racial discrimination in Bristol. In his final years, he served in a number of positions in England, including joining the Race Relations Board, the Sports Council and serving as a BBC Governor
. Failing health reduced his effectiveness in some of these roles and he faced criticism for becoming a part of the British Establishment. Nevertheless, in 1969 he became the first black peer when he became Baron Constantine. He died of a heart attack on 1 July 1971.
in north-west Trinidad
, on 21 September 1901, the second child of the family and the eldest of three brothers. His father, Lebrun Constantine
, was the grandchild of slaves; Lebrun rose to the position of overseer on a cocoa estate in Cascade, near Maraval
, where the family moved in 1906. Lebrun was famous on the island as a cricketer who represented Trinidad in first-class cricket and toured England twice with a West Indian team. Constantine's mother, Anaise Pascall, was the daughter of slaves and her brother Victor
was also a Trinidad and West Indian first-class cricketer; a third family member, Constantine's brother Elias
also later represented Trinidad.
Although the family was not wealthy, Constantine considered his childhood a happy one and believed that he and his siblings were luckier than many other children. Constantine spent much of his childhood playing in the hills near his home or on the estates of his father and grandfather. He enjoyed cricket from an early age, and played with his whole family who regularly practised together under the supervision of Lebrun and Victor Pascall.
Constantine was taught in Port of Spain at the St Ann's Government School until the age of 12, and then at St Ann's Roman Catholic School until 1917. He displayed little enthusiasm for learning and never reached a high enough standard to achieve a scholarship to college. Rather than his academic achievements, he was known as a keen sportsman and respected for his cricketing lineage. At his second school, he proved to be a good footballer and sprinter. Coached and encouraged by Andrew de Four, the headmaster, he also played for the school cricket team, which he captained in his last two years. By this time, he had built a reputation as an exceptionally good cricketer; an attacking batsman and a good fast-medium bowler, he excelled as a fielder. His father prohibited Constantine from playing competitive club cricket until 1920 for fear of the detrimental effect on his cricket of being exposed to top-class opposition at an early age; he also wanted his son to establish a career before playing competitive cricket.
Upon leaving school, Constantine joined Jonathan Ryan, a solicitors in Port of Spain as a clerk; this was a possible route into the legal profession. However, as a member of the black lower-middle class, he was unlikely to progress far: few black Trinidadians at this time became solicitors and he faced many social restrictions owing to his colour.
, but after scoring 50 runs
in an hour during his third game, he was promoted to the first eleven
. Cricket in Trinidad at the time was divided along racial lines. For cricket clubs on the island, the colour of a player's skin was crucial. Shannon was associated with black lower middle-class players such as teachers or clerks. The club were highly competitive and motivated, partly as a reaction to the racial discrimination that its players and supporters encountered in their daily lives, and took cricket very seriously. Constantine's cricket thrived in this atmosphere, but the club also helped to form some of his political views. He particularly noticed that in Trinidadian and West Indian cricket, white and light-skinned players were often favoured over black players with greater ability.
Constantine's reputation continued to grow as he played for Shannon. One innings he played in 1921 against renowned fast bowler George John
was widely commented on, but according to C. L. R. James
, this was the only time he played in such an effective way until 1928. Even so, the white captain of the Trinidad team, Major Bertie Harragin
, detected promise in Constantine and encouraged him. Constantine's father was still in the Trinidad team at this time, but did not put himself forward for selection in 1921 in the hope that his son would replace him. Harragin selected Constantine junior to play in the Inter-Colonial Tournament
in Trinidad's match against British Guiana
. But Constantine missed that match when he arrived late after a newspaper advertised the wrong starting time. Instead, he made his first-class debut in the following match, the final of the tournament, against Barbados
on 21 September 1921. He scored a duck
in his first innings, batting at number eight in the batting order
. After taking two wickets at a cost of 44 runs in Barbados' only innings, he scored 24 in his second innings, batting this time at number three. Constantine played in Trinidad's next games, in the next Inter-Colonial Tournament in Guiana twelve months later. Although in two games he scored only 45 runs and took four wickets, commentators considered his fielding in the covers to be exceptional and he retained his place in the team largely as a fielder.
Although Trinidad lost to Barbados in the final, the Barbados captain Harold Austin
, who was also the captain of the West Indies team, was impressed by Constantine. Mainly on the strength of his fielding, Austin secured Constantine's selection for the 1923 West Indian tour of England; it was a surprising choice as there were other candidates appeared to have stronger cricketing merits. By now, Constantine had left the solicitors Jonathan Ryan to join the law firm of Llewellyn Roberts, a larger practice which paid more. As his new employer's longer working hours restricted Constantine's cricket practice, when he was selected for the West Indies he resigned his position.
, persuaded English critics that West Indian cricket was stronger than previously supposed and helped the West Indies to attain Test match status in 1928. The biggest individual success of the tour was George Challenor
, but Constantine impressed English critics through his style of play more than his statistical success. Constantine played 20 first-class matches on the tour, scoring 425 runs at an average of 15.74 and taking 37 wickets at an average
of 21.86. These were not regarded as good figures and although his batting and bowling occasionally impressed, he was inconsistent. Against Oxford University
, he scored 77, his maiden first-class fifty, but his only other half century came against Derbyshire
; he also took five wickets in an innings for the first time, in the match against Kent
, but he did not take more than three wickets in any other innings on the tour.
Even so, Wisden Cricketers' Almanack
commented that his batting, while highly unorthodox in technique, could be very effective when he was in form. Wisden also noted that his bowling was fast. Several English players, including Jack Hobbs
, singled out Constantine as an unusually talented cricketer on the strength of his performances in 1923. Commentators considered him to be an exceptional fielder; Pelham Warner, a former England captain and influential journalist and administrator, described Constantine after the tour as the best fielder in the world, while he was praised by the press and in the pages of Wisden. James later wrote: "He is a success, but he has not set the Thames on fire, and, what is more, he hasn't tried to."
later commented that, on his first tour of England, "[Constantine] learnt much that he never forgot, by no means all of it about cricket: and he recognised the game as his only possible ladder to the kind of life he wanted." When Constantine returned to Trinidad, he had no permanent job and little prospect of advancement in any suitable profession. He took several temporary jobs but was often forced to rely financially upon his family. But by this stage, he had decided to pursue a career as a professional cricketer in England, and began to practise with this target in mind. Although he scored 167 for Shannon in 1924, and took eight for 38 for Trinidad against Barbados, Constantine's cricket was steady but not particularly successful in this period. His performances did not stand out and he was dropped from the West Indies team to face the MCC touring team during 1926. He was recalled for the following match, once again at the insistence of Austin, who wanted a good cover fielder in the team. Constantine was also involved in an incident over short-pitched bowling
. The MCC fast bowlers had bowled short at Austin, who was nearly 50; in retaliation, Constantine bounced the MCC captain, Freddie Calthorpe
and only stopped after C. L. R. James pointed out the diplomatic row which would follow if Calthorpe, an important figure in the British establishment
, was hit by the ball. Once more, his performances were not statistically impressive but his style impressed critics and spectators, and he came top of the West Indies bowling averages.
A new, permanent job with Trinidad Leaseholds allowed Constantine to devote more time to cricket; he had time to practise and the firm were happy to allow him to play representative cricket. Constantine realised that to succeed as a professional cricketer, his performances needed to improve and he had to fulfil some of the potential which critics had recognised since his first appearances. His bowling was not particularly fast and while batting he often got out playing shots which were too adventurous. After his relative failure in 1926, he increased his level of practice. He improved his fitness and trained to become a slip fielder so that he could conserve energy for bowling. To become a genuine fast bowler, he increased the pace of his bowling and developed greater stamina. By the time trial matches were arranged for the 1928 tour of England, his cricket had improved to the point where he took five for 32 and scored 63 in the second trial match and he was chosen to go to England. When he went, he left behind his wife, whom he had married in 1927, and his newly-born daughter.
Aside from his personal success, Constantine was also conscious that his cricket had to be entertaining: the tourists had to be attractive for spectators to encourage public interest and ensure the financial success of this and future tours. He began the tour in good form; in the opening first-class match, against Derbyshire
, he began his second innings with the West Indians needing 40 runs to win; in seven scoring shots, Constantine hit 31 runs and took the team to a two-wicket victory. In the following match, he scored 130 in 90 minutes, his maiden first-class century, against Essex
to give his team a first-innings lead. Against Surrey
he scored two fifties in a drawn game; the second innings averted a West Indian defeat after the early batsmen had failed. In the following games, Constantine scored another fifty against Oxford University and took ten wickets in the game against Cambridge University
, but it was the Middlesex
which brought Constantine to the widest attention.
Prior to the game, Constantine was struggling for fitness, but conscious that he was the star attraction and that success was important in a high-profile game, he chose to play. Middlesex batted first, but Constantine bowled little owing to his injury. Middlesex reached 352 before declaring the innings closed
and West Indies were struggling at 79 for five when Constantine came into bat. He scored 50 runs in 18 minutes and went on to score 86 in under an hour to avert the follow-on
. When Middlesex batted again, he took seven for 57 in a spell of extremely fast bowling to bowl Middlesex out for 136. West Indies needed 259 to win but looked likely to lose when Constantine returned to bat with the score 121 for five. This time, he scored 103 in 60 minutes, hitting two sixes and 12 fours and taking West Indies to a three-wicket victory. The spectators and Middlesex members gave him a standing ovation and cheered enthusiastically; for players and spectators this was the defining match of Constantine's career. Writing many years later, cricket writer E. W. Swanton
noted that there were few all-round performances in the history of cricket to match it. Shortly after the game, Nelson
, a cricket club in the Lancashire League, offered Constantine a professional contract, which was his aim at the start of the tour.
The rest of Constantine's tour was successful; he was particularly successful against Northamptonshire
, taking 13 wickets in the game, including a hat-trick, and scoring 107 in his only innings. Only in the Test matches, the first played by West Indies, was he less effective. Although he took West Indies first wicket in Test cricket, dismissing Charlie Hallows
, and took four for 82 on his debut, he took only five wickets in the three Test matches at an average of 52.40; with the bat, he scored 89 runs in six innings at 14.83. Even so, Jack Hobbs
said that Constantine's opening overs to him in the first Test were among the fastest he ever faced, and Constantine was criticised for bowling short at the England batsmen in the second Test. When the tour ended, Constantine had scored more runs and taken more wickets and catches than any other tourist. He was second in the team's batting averages with 1,381 runs at 34.52 and led the bowling averages with 107 wickets at 22.95. However, he bowled far more than any of his team-mates and believed that his captain, Karl Nunes
, over-bowled him; the pair did not get along well on the tour. But it was the manner in which Constantine played which set him apart from the restrained form of cricket played in England at the time: his style, aggression and entertaining cricket made a big impression on the crowds. According to Peter Mason in his biography of Constantine, he established a unique style of West Indian cricket and possibly established the template for West Indian cricketers for years to come.
Following his first season in Nelson in 1929, Constantine returned to the West Indies to face England in another Test series, making a visit to New York along the way. Although the English touring team contained some famous names, the Marylebone Cricket Club
(MCC) who administered English cricket at the time, sent out two parallel teams at the same time in 1929–30; the West Indies touring party contained two players in their fifties, Wilfred Rhodes
and George Gunn
. The first Test was drawn and while Constantine did little with the bat, he contributed a long spell of bowling and fielded well, holding several catches. This was enough for him to be regarded as the star performer and he was awarded a bat for his contribution. However, the MCC captain criticised his use of short bowling with fielders concentrated on the leg side
; such bowling struck the 40-year-old Andy Sandham
and Constantine only reverted to more conventional tactics after a request from the MCC manager. Bill Voce
pursued similar tactics earlier in the match and knocked out one of the home batsmen. Constantine then played twice for Trinidad against the MCC team. Cramp prevented him bowling in the second game and he failed with the bat, but took nine catches in total and he believed his was fielding better than he had ever done. During the second Test, which also took place in Trinidad, Constantine scored a rapid 58 and took six wickets but West Indies lost by 167 runs. Compensation came in the following match when West Indies recorded their first win in Test matches. Centuries from George Headley
and Clifford Roach
paved the way, and Constantine took four for 35 and five for 87 to secure the victory. Constantine was left out of the final match mainly for political reasons. In the series, 29 men represented West Indies and each match had a different home captain. Expenses and island politics meant that selectors tended to pick players from the island hosting the Test. In the three matches he played, Constantine scored 144 runs at 14.40 and took 18 wickets at 27.61.
After his second season at Nelson, Constantine joined the first West Indies team to tour Australia. The side felt some trepidation over the reception that the black members of the side would receive, but the tour passed off without incident and Constantine later praised the reception the team received. The team was captained by Jackie Grant
, a white man who had played for Cambridge University but had not seen any of the team play recently. Constantine considered this to be unsatisfactory from the team's point of view and he felt it affected performances. West Indies were heavily defeated in the five-Test series, losing the first four matches before winning the last match for their first overseas victory. Constantine achieved little in the series, scoring just 72 runs at 7.20 and taking eight wickets at 50.87. In other first-class games, he was more successful and although Headley performed very well, it was Constantine who proved immensely popular with spectators. Even before the Tests began, his fielding drew praise from the press and he was described in The Sydney Mail
as the fastest bowler seen in Australia for years. Monty Noble
, a former Australian captain writing in the Sydney Sun
described a rapid innings of 59 runs as "sensational" and one of the best played in Australia since the war. Among his other achievements were five-wicket returns against Victoria, Tasmania and New South Wales, a century in 52 minutes against Tasmania, innings of 75 and 97 in the match against Queensland, 63 runs against South Australia and 93 in the New South Wales game. For all his success against the state teams, his fielding was the biggest attraction; in 1950, Donald Bradman
who played against Constantine that season, described him as the greatest fielder he had seen. In all first-class matches, Constantine scored 708 runs at an average of 30.78 and took 47 wickets at 20.21; he led the team's bowling averages and came fourth in batting.
, another West Indian fast bowler, were criticised in the press for bowling short at the MCC batsmen. The West Indian board unsuccessfully tried to negotiate his release for the first Test match, which West Indies lost heavily. After he appeared in some mid-week games for the West Indies, taking nine wickets in the game against Yorkshire
, Nelson gave him permission to appear in the second Test at Manchester.
During the previous winter, England had played Australia in the controversial Bodyline
series in which the English bowlers were accused of bowling the ball roughly on the line of leg stump. The deliveries
were often short-pitched with four or five fielders close by on the leg side waiting to catch deflections off the bat. The tactics were difficult for batsmen to counter and were designed to be intimidatory. By the 1933 season, it had become a sensitive subject. In the game against Yorkshire, Grant was frustrated to discover that the home team had prepared a soft pitch which reduced the effectiveness of fast bowling and he ordered Constantine to bowl Bodyline. The tactics were not effective in that instance, but Grant and Constantine discussed the matter further and decided to use Bodyline during the second Test. West Indies scored 375, of which Constantine scored 31. When England replied, several batsmen were discomfited by the Bodyline bowling; Wally Hammond
was struck on the chin and retired hurt. Constantine and Martindale bowled up to four short deliveries each over so that the ball rose to head height; occasionally they bowled around the wicket. Although not as fast as he had been on the previous tour, Constantine was still capable of short bursts of very fast bowling. Even so, the England captain Douglas Jardine
, the man responsible for the Bodyline tactics used in Australia, batted for five hours to score his only Test century. Many critics praised Jardine's batting and bravery in the game. The ball carried through slowly on another soft pitch, which reduced the effectiveness of the Bodyline tactics, and Constantine took one for 55. The public disapproval expressed during and after the match was instrumental in turning English attitudes against Bodyline, an attitude Constantine considered hypocritical. In West Indies second innings, England also bowled Bodyline, but Constantine's innings of 64 in an hour ensured that the match was drawn.
Constantine played only one more first-class game on the tour; in all first-class games, he scored 181 runs at 20.11 and took 14 wickets at 22.14. The team management negotiated a deal with Nelson to release him for the third Test, where Essex
all-rounder Stan Nichols
was arranged as a substitute for the club team. When Jardine heard, he convinced the England selectors to include Nichols in the team for the Test, the deal collapsed and Constantine did not play. Overall, critics believed that the team underachieved; Constantine believed one cause was the inexperience of Grant as captain.
Constantine's next first-class cricket came late in 1934, when he went to India to coach and play in the Moin-ud-Dowlah Gold Cup Tournament. He played two matches which were later given first-class status, and nearly represented the Europeans cricket team
in the Bombay Quadrangular
tournament until critics disagreed over his eligibility. Constantine returned to Nelson in December 1934, in time to receive a telegram
from the West Indies Board inviting him to play in the Test series against England to be played in early 1935. The message arrived too late for him to play in the first Test, won by England, but he travelled with his family to Trinidad, where the second Test was played, and played in the remainder of the four-match series.
When the MCC team played Trinidad in two matches preceding the second Test, Constantine took a total of 10 wickets in the games. In the second, he played with his brother Elias
for the only time in a first-class match; the brothers shared a partnership of 93. In the first innings of the Test, Constantine scored 90, his highest Test score. West Indies had the advantage for much of the game and left England needing 325 to win in the fourth innings. The tourists aimed to achieve a draw but lost early wickets. In the final stages of the match, Constantine was warned by the umpire that he was bowling Bodyline and Jackie Grant withdrew him from the bowling attack, to Constantine's displeasure. When the crowd protested, Constantine returned to bowl and with only two balls of the match left, he took the last English wicket. West Indies had won by 217 runs and Constantine had taken three for 11; in the match, he scored 121 runs and took five wickets. The third Test was drawn, leaving the final Test to decide the series. After making a big total, West Indies bowled England out twice to win by an innings and record their first Test series victory. As well as taking six wickets in the game, Constantine captained the team to victory after Grant injured an ankle on the last morning and asked Constantine to assume the leadership in his absence. Peter Mason writes: "Given the measures that the West Indian authorities had taken to ensure that no black man would ever captain a regional side, it was a great irony and a huge source of delight to Constantine that he should be the man to lead the team at the moment of their greatest achievement so far." Once more, the press praised Constantine and hailed his achievements. In the series, he scored 169 runs at an average of 33.80 and took 15 wickets at 13.13.
, the editor of Wisden, wrote that the tour "brought considerable distinction to the team". Nevertheless, Constantine and the captain, Rolph Grant
, did not get along. Constantine believed Grant was appointed simply because he was white and that he was unsuited to the job. Constantine captained the side in one match but was reprimanded by the West Indies board for not pursuing a win and replaced for the next game.
By now aged 38, Constantine no longer bowled fast but generally at medium pace from a short run-up. To compensate for his reduced pace, he mixed up his bowling style to deceive the batsmen, spinning the ball and bowling at speeds from quite slow to occasionally very fast. He bowled more overs than any other member of the team and was the leading wicket-taker with 103 wickets in the season at an average of 17.77. He led the team's bowling averages, and came seventh in the bowling averages for the season. Preston, in Wisden, noted that "in bowling Constantine stood out by himself". With the bat, Constantine scored 614 runs at 21.17, and Norman Preston wrote that Constantine "often electrified onlookers with his almost impudent zest for runs". His highest innings came in the final Test match when he scored 79 in an hour, out of 103 runs while he was batting, and hit 11 fours. Wisden commented: "Constantine, in the mood suggesting his work in Saturday afternoon League cricket, brought a welcome air of gaiety to the Test arena. He revolutionised all the recognised features of cricket and, surpassing Bradman in his amazing stroke play, he was absolutely impudent in his aggressive treatment of bowling shared by Nichols and Perks." In the three Tests, Constantine scored 110 runs at 27.50 and took 11 wickets at 29.81, including five for 75 in the final Test. Preston considered his fielding to be excellent, and selected him as one of Wisden's Cricketers of the Year
for his performances in the season.
The third Test match, after which the tour was abandoned owing to the war, was Constantine's last. In 18 matches, he scored 635 runs at an average of 19.24, took 58 wickets at 30.10 and held 28 catches. He played just once more in first-class cricket, when he captained a team representing the "Dominions" against England at Lord's; Constantine was the only black player in the game. The match, regarded as one of the most exciting played at Lord's, as narrowly won by the Dominions. Constantine, in the second innings, shared a partnership of 117 in 45 minutes with Keith Miller
; Constantine scored 40 runs. He did not bowl much as he considered himself too slow, but ran out a batsman at a key point in the final innings. In all first-class cricket, Constantine scored 4,475 runs at 24.05 and took 439 wickets at 20.48.
As Nelson's professional, Constantine played during Saturday afternoon matches and in weekday evening knockout games. He also had coaching commitments during the week. On the field, he was immediately successful and looking back, he saw his first season at Nelson as the best of his life owing to the freedom and excitement of the cricket he played. Even so, he improved his figures in subsequent seasons. In nine years at the club, he scored 6,363 runs at an average of 37.65 and took 776 wickets at 9.50. His highest score was 192, and his best bowling figures were ten wickets for ten runs. In each season except for 1932, he averaged over 30 with the bat and in 1933 he scored 1,000 runs at an average of over 50. He took over 70 wickets every season and his bowling average never rose above 11.30; in five seasons, he averaged under ten runs per wicket. In 1933, he took 96 wickets, his highest aggregate, and had he not missed two games to play for the West Indies touring team, would likely have completed the double, an unprecedented feat in the league. Constantine enjoyed league cricket and preferred its brand of cricket to what he perceived as the negativity and dullness of county cricket. He believed the standard of play was very high, stating "Never in my life have I played harder than in Lancashire." In his history of West Indies cricket, Michael Manley
notes that league cricket at this time was intense and unrelenting, comparable to modern one-day cricket. But, "it was in this special atmosphere of League cricket that Constantine was supreme."
For the 1938 season, Constantine played for Rochdale
in the Central Lancashire Cricket League
, although he continued to live in Nelson. He received £812 for the season, and performed successfully. But he did not enjoy the experience owing to what he perceived as a more selfish attitude among the players, some of whom seemed jealous of his earnings, and the different nature of pitches in his new league. Furthermore, there was an incident of racial abuse which he believed the Central Lancashire League committee effectively covered up. In 1939, Constantine represented West Indies during the season and did not play any further professional league cricket in Lancashire. During the war, Constantine returned to play for Nelson as an amateur.
believed that Constantine was the first great West Indian cricketer to make an impression on the British public; "he indeed personified West Indian cricket from the first faltering entry in the Test arena in 1928 until the post-war emergence of the trinity of Worrell, Weekes and Walcott." He went on: "There have been many all-rounders with better records on paper with both bat and ball; but it is hard to think of one who made a more sensational impact, in either department, and above all impossible to imagine his superior as a fielder anywhere." In 1934, journalist Neville Cardus
described Constantine as a "genius" and the "most original cricketer of recent years". R. C. Robertson-Glasgow
called Constantine one of the best all-rounders of his period, and the most exciting cricketer to watch of all his contemporaries. This was partly because his style of cricket meant that he could alter the course of a match in a short space of time. Even so, he was completely professional in his approach and preferred not to take unnecessary risks.
Constantine's batting was based on good eyesight, quick reflexes and natural ability. While batting, he was able to use his wrists to adjust the angle of the bat at the last second to deal with unexpected late movement from the ball. More so than any orthodox coaching, this ability which arose from the uneven pitches on which he learned the game, influenced Constantine's batting. He batted on instinct and according to Manley, "his every stroke owing more to energy than calculation". He was capable of scoring rapidly against any standard of bowler, but rarely batted for long periods because he chose not to defend. His best shots were the cut, pull and hook. C. L. R. James believed that Constantine only found his best form in Test matches once he became an accomplished league cricketer. By setting himself to master the variety of pitch conditions he encountered, and adapting a style of fast-scoring, occasionally unorthodox batting, he became an adaptable and effective batsman who used improvisation where necessary to prevent bowlers getting on top. However, his early supporters had hoped he would become an outstanding batsman; James later wrote: "It was not to be, and what was, was not less."
A fielder who excelled at the position of cover-point, according to Manley, Constantine was "athletic, panther-quick, sure handed and with an arm that could rifle the ball into the wicket-keeper's gloves like a bullet even from the deepest boundary which was not then limited to 75 yards. Many who saw him believe he was one of the best fielders of all time. As a bowler, Constantine had a relatively short run-up to the wickets, but accelerated at the last minute and his bowling action was explosive. Beginning as an outright fast bowler, he adapted his style following his league experience. According to James, he reached his best form as a bowler in 1939 using what he had learned in the leagues. By this time, he varied his pace, spin and the flight of the ball; this style made him effective even on good batting pitches such as that in his final Test match. Although Constantine's Test bowling record was modest, this may to some extent reflect the poor standard of fielding in the West Indies team. In their early days in Test cricket, the West Indian fielders dropped a lot of catches, handicapping the bowling attack.
According to Manley, wherever he played, he brought "style and humour: that aggressiveness that is somehow good-natured and which is the distinctively West Indian quality in all sport. Constantine's extrovert exuberance was, of course, more particularly Trinidadian that generally West Indian. Perhaps it is this last characteristic that gave him that special quality of panache which sets him apart from all other West Indian cricketers."
Initially, only Constantine and his wife moved to Nelson, leaving their daughter with relations. His first season was difficult; both he and the residents of the town were uncertain of each other. Few black people had been seen in Nelson and the locals were initially curious to the point of intrusiveness. Constantine and his wife were frequently stared at, but matters sometimes became more unpleasant. Although some members of the public wrote welcoming letters, the Constantines also received racist and abusive ones. Constantine quickly established boundaries over what he considered acceptable, permitting and even sharing small jokes over skin colour but protesting strongly at outright racism. After his first season, there were no such recorded incidents. John Arlott wrote: "[Constantine] fought discrimination against his people with a dignity firm but free of acrimony." Constantine later attributed some of the uneasiness during the first year to ignorance, but at the time he was ready to return to Trinidad after one season. His wife persuaded him otherwise, pointing out the benefits from remaining to complete his contract. From 1930, possibly helped by the arrival of his daughter, Constantine found life more comfortable. There was less novelty surrounding the family and people in the town became much friendlier. The family developed friendships and took part in the social life of the town. Although visiting Trinidad frequently in the English winter, Constantine and his family now lived in Nelson permanently.
After each of the first three seasons, the family changed their rented accommodation, eventually settling in a fairly prosperous, middle-class area of Nelson where they lived until 1949. During 1932, they took on C. L. R. James
as a lodger. James had come from Trinidad, where he knew Constantine having played cricket against him, to London but ran out of money; Constantine offered him a place to live. James was at the forefront of a growing West Indian nationalist movement, but Constantine had until then consciously stayed out of politics in Nelson. Constantine was frequently invited to give talks at social events; James began to accompany him and increasingly became involved in public speaking. Constantine was more restrained in his views than James but joined the League of Coloured Peoples
, an organisation aiming to achieve racial equality for black people in Britain. Through James' influence, Constantine realised that he could use his influence in Britain to create interest in the West Indies and further the cause of racial equality and Trinidadian independence. Constantine also helped James to further his career, paving his way into public speaking and helping to secure him a job writing for The Manchester Guardian
. Constantine also paid for the publication of James' book on West Indian self-government. In return, James helped Constantine to write his first book, Cricket and I which was published in 1933. Later commentators have identified the book as an important step in West Indian nationalism which encouraged future authors. James later wrote that, at the time, few active cricketers wrote books and "no one in the West Indies that I knew, cricketer or not, was writing books at all; certainly none was being printed abroad." Although the political activities of 1932 badly affected Constantine's form for Nelson, in the longer term they encouraged Constantine to resume his education. The friendship between Constantine and James did not remain as close once James returned to London; they remained in contact but did not always agree politically or morally. But Mason believes that without Constantine's help, James may not have later established himself as a celebrated political writer.
equipment officer, he became a billeting officer in Nelson and inspected homes with a view to housing evacuees. He applied for a job with the Ministry of Labour
and was awaiting his call-up to the armed services when the Ministry of Labour and National Service offered him a job as Welfare Officer, a senior position with the responsibility for the many West Indians who had been recruited to work in factories in the north-west of England for the duration of the war.
Working mainly from Liverpool, Constantine helped the men to find accommodation and training, smooth over difficulties they had settling in and assist them with any problems. He also had to help them adapt to their unfamiliar environment and tackle the severe racism and discrimination which many of them faced. Constantine attempted to work with both sides, working closely with trade unions and attempting to ease the fears and suspicions of white workers. Where employers refused outright to employ West Indians, Constantine used his influence with the Ministry of Labour to increase the number of orders placed at the company so they were forced to employ more workers, of any race, to meet the demands. In most cases, Constantine preferred negotiation to confrontation and this approach was often successful. His familiarity with England and his experience as a West Indian living there assisted him in his role. Also, his status as a famous cricketer and his high profile also benefitted his work, although some black workers felt his ease with white managers meant he was on the employers' side and did not entirely trust him. Constantine's wartime experiences led him to increase his involvement in the League of Coloured Peoples, sometimes referring cases to them he had encountered in his job. Constantine particularly took up the cause of the unwanted children of white women and black overseas servicemen posted to England, who were often abandoned by their parents; plans to create a children's home for them came to nothing, leaving Constantine frustrated at opposition to the scheme.
Constantine remained in his post until the summer of 1946, latterly concerned with the repatriation of the West Indian workers at the end of the war. For his work in the war, he was made a Member of the British Empire (MBE)
in 1947. During the war, Constantine also began a career in radio, broadcasting to the West Indies at the government's request on the role of West Indians in the war. When these broadcasts were successful, he was asked to speak on BBC
radio about his life in England. His radio performances met with critical acclaim and he was a frequent guest on radio panel shows. He also took part in a film documentary in 1943.
By September, the matter came to public attention when questions were asked in the House of Commons, by which time Constantine had decided to take legal action. The following June, Constantine v Imperial London Hotels was heard in the High Court. Although there was no law against racial discrimination in Britain at the time, Constantine argued that the hotel had breached its contract with him. Constantine informed the court that the attitude of the hotel changed between his booking and arrival owing to the presence of white American servicemen. The defence argued that they had met their contract by accommodating Constantine in another hotel and that he had left the Imperial voluntarily. The managing director of the hotel denied that racist language had been used. After two days of evidence, the judge found in Constantine's favour. He rejected the defence's arguments and praised the way Constantine had handled the situation and his bearing in court. Although the judge could only award five guineas damages for the hotel's refusal to accommodate Constantine, Constantine was vindicated and emerged as a clear winner. He received great support from the public and the case was widely followed in the press. Further questions were asked in parliament and Constantine received the support of the government. He did not pursue the case any further as he believed he had raised the issue of racism in the public eye.
Although racial discrimination continued in England, this case was the first to challenge such practices in court. Critics regard it as a milestone in British racial equality in demonstrating that black people had legal recourse against some forms of racism and showing that there was no law against discrimination. According to Mason, it "was one of the key milestones along the road to the creation of the Race Relations Act of 1965." In later years, Constantine was remembered as much for this case as for his cricketing achievements.
, London. As his studies were expensive, he continued for a time as a professional cricketer. He returned to play for Windmill for three seasons from 1946, leading the league bowling averages in the latter two years. He supplemented his income in 1946 by coaching on weekdays at Trinity College, Dublin
. In 1953, he also coached in Ceylon
. Constantine also extended his work in journalism; he reported on cricket matches for Reuters
during 1946 when his understanding of the game impressed fellow journalists. He wrote several cricket books, probably with the help of a ghostwriter
: Cricket in the Sun (1947) covered his career but also discussed the racism he had encountered and suggested ideas for the future of cricket, such as a world cup, which were radical at the time; Cricketers' Carnival (1948), Cricket Crackers and Cricketers' Cricket (both 1949) were more traditional cricket books including coaching tips and opinions. Constantine also established himself as a radio broadcaster. He commentated for the BBC during the West Indies' victorious tour of England in 1950. HIs style won praise from the BBC hierarchy and from fellow journalists and he was soon in demand for other broadcasts, usually to talk about the Commonwealth or West Indies. He enjoyed speaking on the radio and was particularly effective when speaking without a script; audiences particularly appreciated his broadcasts on his early life in Trinidad or his personal experiences.
Around this time, Constantine had several official roles and became involved in racial issues. In 1947, Constantine became chairman of the League of Coloured Peoples and joined its executive committee. However, following the death of Harold Moody
, the League's founder and Constantine's predecessor as chairman, the league foundered and closed in 1951. In 1948, he was elected president of the Caribbean Congress of Labour
and between 1947 and 1950, he joined the Colonial Office
's Colonial Social Welfare Advisory Committee. Also in 1950, he became involved in a controversy over the interracial marriage of Seretse Khama
, the future president of Botswana. Constantine lobbied the government on Khama's behalf, organised meetings and even approached the United Nations. Little was achieved and Constantine disapproved of the approach of the Labour
government and its Prime Minister, Clement Attlee
. Among other approached to Constantine at this time, he was invited to become a Liberal
MP and to assist in the organisation of a black Olympic Games.
Broadcasting in particular provided Constantine with the financial security he needed. His legal studies began in earnest in 1946 when he joined the chambers of a barrister in London. Most of his studying was done at home; Constantine neither enjoyed the work nor found it easy but was determined to prove that he could succeed. His wife kept him motivated, restricted visitors to avoid distractions and practically forced him to study, keeping him going several times when he verged on giving up. By 1947, he had passed the Roman Law examination, and the family moved to London in 1949 to make it easier for him to study. Between 1950 and 1954, Constantine passed the required series of examinations, and in later 1954 he was called to the bar
by the Middle Temple.
Having turned down an offer to return to the company in 1947 when he was not happy with his proposed role, Constantine agreed to join his old employers, Trinidad Leaseholds, as an assistant legal advisor. He was uncertain about the move, having lived in England for 25 years and he was still concerned about racial barriers in place in his homeland. On balance, though, he believed it was a good time to return to Trinidad, particularly as his daughter was moving there to marry. Before leaving England, he published his fifth book, Colour Bar, in 1954. Written with a ghostwriter over two years, it addressed race relations in Britain and how he had experienced racism. He also discussed world-wide racial oppression and how progress could be made to improve the lives of black people. For the time it was written, according to Peter Mason, it was "an explosive, challenging, hard hitting tome, the more so because it came not from a known black militant but from someone who seemed so charming, so unruffled, so suited to British society." Although not radical to a black audience, it was aimed at white British readers. The British press gave it mixed reviews and criticised him for unfairness in parts of the book; other critics accused him of expressing communist sympathies.
(PNM) was founded around this time and its leader, Eric Williams
, wanted to involve Constantine owing to his popular appeal and shared political views. By January 1956, Constantine had been elected as party chairman and a member of its executive; although he had assured Trinidad Leaseholds he would avoid politics, the company agreed he could pursue his role in the new party. Constantine's role involved establishing an infrastructure for the party, for example setting up local groups affiliated to the party, while maintaining his job at Trinidad Leaseholds. Previously, Constantine had been reluctant to become involved in party politics, but he felt the PNM's policies fitted with his views on improving the lives of black people. Encouraged by his wife, Constantine stood for election in the constituency of Tunapuna
, close to where he grew up. Constantine won a narrow victory based mainly on the votes of the black population; his colleagues believed he was one of very few personalities who could have won the seat for the PNM. Having won, Constantine resigned from Trinidad Leaseholds, and moved to Tunapuna. The PNM won a majority of seats in the election and Constantine became the minister of communications.
As minister, Constantine was responsible for the regeneration of Trinidad's infrastructure, for example building roads and bridges, expanding the supply of water and electricity and the construction of schools. He also had to make improvements to Trinidad's road system to cope with an increasing number of cars and he attempted to modernise the railway system. His role brought him into controversy when he was accused of corruption in late 1958 over a deal to lease a ship to carry passengers and cargo from Port-of-Spain to Scarborough, Tobago
. Hurt by the accusation, his angry response in the Legislative Council
created a perception that he felt himself to be above his colleagues. The speech placed doubts in the mind of the electorate, which may already have questioned his commitment to Trinidad given his long absence abroad. It also suggested to his colleagues that Constantine was not sufficiently hardened to survive parliamentary politics. According to Mason, "In short, the speech was a miscalculation". Constantine became increasingly disillusioned with the bitter political arguments between the political parties and commentators considered him unsuited to the role. Constantine assisted in the development of the West Indies Federation
as a step towards the independence of the islands, and then played a role in the negotiations which led to Trinidad's independence in 1962. His familiarity in Britain and his fame helped to smooth negotiations, even if his actual role was insubstantial. Subsequently, he decided not to stand for re-election in 1961 and Williams appointed him as Trinidad and Tobago's first High Commissioner
in London.
Constantine's political career in Trinidad was a mixed experience. Peter Mason writes that Constantine was successful in his role; he was efficiency, preferred action rather than debate and was both respected and popular. Mason concedes he was not a natural political and often sensitive to criticism. In addition, his experiences outside his homeland were distrusted rather than an advantage. Gerald Howat believes Constantine's career was handicapped through his age, his frequent references to his English experience, his disillusionment with politics, his lack of toughness and his rejection of political theorising in favour of pragmatism. Nor was he successful in debate. On the other hand, Howat states that Constantine's popularity attracted support to the PNM and that his ability to work with people led to a series of achievements in his role as minister.
Constantine played a role in the campaign to appoint the West Indies cricket team's first black captain, led by C. L. R. James; part of the eventual success of the campaign came from the perception of the anachronism that black people like Constantine could hold government positions, but not captain a cricket team.
of the town of Nelson and appeared on several popular television programmes which celebrated his life and achievements. In the New Year's Honours list for 1962, he was knighted
to become Sir Learie Constantine. Mason notes that Constantine had now "passed firmly into the consciousness as a British treasure".
His role as High Commissioner ended in controversy. Constantine felt that his high profile required him to speak out on racial issues affecting the growing number of West Indian immigrants to Britain, and he offered quiet support to individuals in a number of cases. He also considered his duty to include representing all West Indians, not just Trinidadians. But in one case in April 1963, he went further; a Bristol bus company refused to employ black staff and Constantine became publicly involved by visiting the city and speaking to the press about the incidents. Constantine's intervention assisted in a speedy resolution and the bus company backed down; according to Mason, the affair was crucial in persuading the government of the need for a Race Relations Act. However, politicians in both Trinidad and Britain felt that a senior diplomat should not have become so closely involved in domestic affairs, particularly as he acted without consulting his government. Consequently, Constantine flew to Trinidad to meet Eric Williams. Although it is not clear what happened, Williams effectively withdrew his support and friendship from Constantine, possibly wanting a lower profile appointment in Britain. According to Constantine, he sought reassurances from Williams which were not forthcoming. In return, Constantine decided not to renew his contract as High Commissioner when it expired in February 1964. Constantine subsequently downplayed the diplomatic effects of his intervention but rarely spoke of what had occurred with Williams.
Howat believes Constantine was successful as High Commissioner in caring for his staff but did not pay enough attention to his job or the administration of the office. Other diplomats respected him, but Howat writes: "Yet the evidence for arguing that he was a successful High Commissioner remains sketchy. In the one area in which he acted positively, he blundered—the Bristol affair. In the language of the game he loved ... his timing was wrong but though he was full of good intentions. To his office he brought certain known qualities which served him well but he added nothing to his stature or reputation during the term in which he held it." Mason believes "there was too much of the welfare officer about him and not enough of the government focused diplomat."
Constantine was once more involved in the British government at this time. In 1965, he was a founding member of the Sports Council
which aimed to develop sport in Britain. In 1967, he formed part of the three-person Race Relations Board, formed out of the Race Relations Act, to investigate cases of racial discrimination. In this role, he spoke out against the Commonwealth Immigrants Act which led to an offer from the Liberal Party to stand as MP for Nelson, which Constantine declined. Later, he was involved in an unsuccessful attempt to negotiate the release of Abubakar Tafawa Balewa
, the overthrown Prime Minister of Nigeria. In 1966, Constantine was appointed to the BBC's General Advisory Committee before he became a Governor
of the corporation two years later. But his declining health restricted his involvement as a Governor.
In the New Years Honours of 1969, Constantine was awarded a life peerage
and became the first black man to achieve a place in the House of Lords
. He took the title of Baron Constantine of Maraval in Trinidad and Nelson in the County Palatine of Lancaster. His investiture attracted widespread media attention; Constantine stated: "I think it must have been for what I have endeavoured to do to make it possible for people of different colour to know each other better and live well together." He sat as a crossbencher but was well enough to make only one speech in his time in the Lords. Also, in 1967 he was elected by students as Rector of St Andrew's University
. Once again, his health restricted him and students believed he did not fulfil his role satisfactorily, to the extent of voting that he step down. He left the post when his term expired in 1970. A side-effect of Constantine's many awards and posts in his last years, he faced criticism that he had become part of the Establishment; Private Eye
mocked him and the new generation of West Indian immigrants believed he was out of touch with their views. Throughout his life, Constantine preferred to deal with racism through measured diplomacy, trying to ensure that the perpetrator looked unreasonable and foolish. He wrote that such incidents "hurt, of course, but one tries to be philosophical afterwards. Long ago, an old Negro told me: 'Learie, the only thing to do with people with bad manners is to forgive them; any other way hurts more.' He was right." This conciliatory approach brought disapproval from more radical black spokesmen in later life.
Although reluctant to leave England, to which he felt he belonged as much as to Trinidad, his health necessitated plans to return permanently to Trinidad. Before he could do so, he died of a heart attack probably brought about by bronchitis on 1 July 1971. His body was flown to Trinidad where he received a state funeral before he was buried in Arouca
. He was posthumously awarded Trinidad's highest honour, the Trinidad Cross. Later in July, a memorial service was held in London in Westminster Abbey.
John Arlott describes Constantine as a man of "easy humour and essential patience ... His outlook was that of a compassionate radical and he maintained his high moral standards unswervingly." E. W. Swanton writes: "None could call Lord Constantine a modest man, but gifts of warmth and friendliness as well as a shrewd brain and a ready tongue helped to make him one of the personalities of his time." He did not get along with everyone; he and England cricketer Wally Hammond
feuded for nearly ten years over what Constantine perceived as a slight in 1925–26. Subsequently, Constantine continually bowled short when he encountered Hammond on the field until the pair made peace in the Old Trafford Test match of 1933. After this, they pursued a more good-natured rivalry and became quite friendly and Hammond publicly expressed sympathy for the discrimination suffered by Constantine and other black West Indians.
In his earlier years, acquaintances believed Constantine was too conscious of colour. James wrote: "Many doors in England were open to him. That doors were closed to other West Indians seemed more important to him." Michael Manley describes him as an extrovert who displayed great self belief in everything he did. He also notes that "Constantine was too long in England and perhaps too slight in Test-match performance to make the impact on the Caribbean that he did on England. But he enchanted England."
Order of the British Empire
The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire is an order of chivalry established on 4 June 1917 by George V of the United Kingdom. The Order comprises five classes in civil and military divisions...
(21 September 1901 – 1 July 1971) was a West Indian cricket
Cricket
Cricket is a bat-and-ball game played between two teams of 11 players on an oval-shaped field, at the centre of which is a rectangular 22-yard long pitch. One team bats, trying to score as many runs as possible while the other team bowls and fields, trying to dismiss the batsmen and thus limit the...
er who played 18 Test matches
Test cricket
Test cricket is the longest form of the sport of cricket. Test matches are played between national representative teams with "Test status", as determined by the International Cricket Council , with four innings played between two teams of 11 players over a period of up to a maximum five days...
before the Second World War. He took West Indies' first wicket in Test cricket and was the team's leading all-rounder
All-rounder
An all-rounder is a cricketer who regularly performs well at both batting and bowling. Although all bowlers must bat and quite a few batsmen do bowl occasionally, most players are skilled in only one of the two disciplines and are considered specialists...
and opening bowler
Bowling (cricket)
In the sport of cricket, bowling is the action of propelling the ball toward the wicket defended by a batsman. A player skilled at bowling is called a bowler; a bowler who is also a competent batsman is known as an all-rounder...
for the entirety of his career. Constantine also represented Trinidad and played professional club cricket in England for Nelson Cricket Club
Nelson Cricket Club
Nelson Cricket Club, based at Seedhill in Nelson, Lancashire, are a cricket club in the Lancashire League. They play at the Seedhill ground in Nelson. Their captain for the 2011 season is Thomas Lord and their professional is New Zealand international player Luke Woodcock.Nelson Cricket Club was...
where he was probably the highest paid sportsman in England. An aggressive, entertaining batsman, he scored 635 runs
Run (cricket)
In the sport of cricket, a run is the basic unit of scoring. Runs are scored by a batsman, and the aggregate of the scores of a team's batsmen constitutes the team's score. A batsman scoring 50 or 100 runs , or any higher multiple of 50 runs, is considered a particular achievement...
in Tests at an average of 19.24. Mainly as a fast bowler he took 58 wickets at an average
Bowling average
Bowling average is a statistic measuring the performance of bowlers in the sport of cricket.A bowler's bowling average is defined as the total number of runs conceded by the bowlers divided by the number of wickets taken by the bowler, so the lower the average the better. It is similar to earned...
of 30.10 and also held 28 catches. Following the end of his cricket career, he became involved in fighting racial discrimination in Britain through his role as a Welfare Officer during the war. For the rest of his life, he fought against racism and was involved in at least two incidents which paved the way for the Race Relations Act
Race Relations Act 1965
The Race Relations Act 1965 was the first legislation in the United Kingdom to address racial discrimination.The Act outlawed discrimination on the "grounds of colour, race, or ethnic or national origins" in public places....
in Britain. Later, he became a barrister before joining the government of Trinidad. Upon returning to England, he was initially Trinidadian High Commissioner
High Commissioner
High Commissioner is the title of various high-ranking, special executive positions held by a commission of appointment.The English term is also used to render various equivalent titles in other languages.-Bilateral diplomacy:...
before assuming a variety of other roles. He was knighted
Knight Bachelor
The rank of Knight Bachelor is a part of the British honours system. It is the most basic rank of a man who has been knighted by the monarch but not as a member of one of the organised Orders of Chivalry...
in 1962 and made a life peer
Life peer
In the United Kingdom, life peers are appointed members of the Peerage whose titles cannot be inherited. Nowadays life peerages, always of baronial rank, are created under the Life Peerages Act 1958 and entitle the holders to seats in the House of Lords, presuming they meet qualifications such as...
in 1969.
Born in Trinidad, Constantine established an early reputation as a promising cricketer and was selected for the West Indies 1923 tour of England. Although moderately successful, he achieved little of cricketing note in the following years. Unhappy at the lack of progress possible for black people in Trinidad, he decided to pursue a career as a professional cricketer in England. Preparing throughly, he was a great success during the West Indies' tour of England in 1928 and was awarded a professional contract with the Lancashire League club Nelson. He and his family moved to England to live in Nelson and he played for the club with great distinction between 1929 and 1938. He toured England again in 1933 and 1939, toured Australia in 1930–31 and played two further Test series in the Caribbean. While he was popular wherever he played, owing to his explosive and entertaining style, his record as a Test cricketer was less impressive than in other cricket. Nevertheless, he established a uniquely West Indian style of play. He was chosen as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year
Wisden Cricketers of the Year
The Wisden Cricketers of the Year are cricketers selected for the honour by the annual publication Wisden Cricketers' Almanack, based primarily on their "influence on the previous English season"...
in 1939.
When the Second World War curtailed his cricket career, Constantine worked for the Ministry of Labour and National Service as a Welfare Officer responsible for West Indians working in English factories to assist the war effort. Constantine often had to deal with racist incidents and attitudes and was awarded an MBE when his job ended in 1946. Subsequently pursuing a legal career, he qualified as a barrister in 1954 while also establishing himself as a journalist and broadcaster. He returned to Trinidad in 1954 but was soon drawn into politics. He became a founding member of the People's National Movement
People's National Movement
The People's National Movement is the present-day opposition political party in Trinidad and Tobago. Founded in 1955 by Eric Williams, it won the 1956 General Elections and went on to hold power for an unbroken 30 years. After the death of Williams in 1981 George Chambers led the party...
which won an election and became the minister of communications for Trinidad. After a successful spell in government, he did not stand in the next election, disillusioned by party politics and returned to England as Trinidad's High Commissioner between 1961 and 1964. This post ended in controversy as he became involved in a case of racial discrimination in Bristol. In his final years, he served in a number of positions in England, including joining the Race Relations Board, the Sports Council and serving as a BBC Governor
Board of Governors of the BBC
The Board of Governors of the BBC was the governing body of the British Broadcasting Corporation. It consisted of twelve people who together regulated the BBC and represented the interests of the public. It existed from 1927 until it was replaced by the BBC Trust on 1 January 2007.The governors...
. Failing health reduced his effectiveness in some of these roles and he faced criticism for becoming a part of the British Establishment. Nevertheless, in 1969 he became the first black peer when he became Baron Constantine. He died of a heart attack on 1 July 1971.
Early life
Constantine was born in Petit Valley, a village close to Diego MartinDiego Martin
Diego Martin is a town in northwestern Trinidad, just north-west of the capital Port of Spain and east of Carenage. The Diego Martin Valley in the Northern Range was once filled with a number of small villages but is now a densely populated area. It was named after a Spanish explorer Don Diego...
in north-west Trinidad
Trinidad
Trinidad is the larger and more populous of the two major islands and numerous landforms which make up the island nation of Trinidad and Tobago. It is the southernmost island in the Caribbean and lies just off the northeastern coast of Venezuela. With an area of it is also the fifth largest in...
, on 21 September 1901, the second child of the family and the eldest of three brothers. His father, Lebrun Constantine
Lebrun Constantine
Lebrun Samuel Constantine was a coloured West Indian cricketer who toured England in 1900 and 1906 and was a regular member of the Trinidad team from 1893-94 to 1922-23. He was primarily a batsman. He often kept wicket but was also a useful occasional bowler...
, was the grandchild of slaves; Lebrun rose to the position of overseer on a cocoa estate in Cascade, near Maraval
Maraval
Maraval is one of the northern suburbs of Trinidad's capital, Port of Spain a valley in northern Trinidad in Trinidad and Tobago. It is situated at the bottom of the hills of Paramin and located east of the Diego Martin valley to which it is connected directly by Morne Coco Road, and west of Santa...
, where the family moved in 1906. Lebrun was famous on the island as a cricketer who represented Trinidad in first-class cricket and toured England twice with a West Indian team. Constantine's mother, Anaise Pascall, was the daughter of slaves and her brother Victor
Victor Pascall
Victor S Pascall was a Trinidadian cricketer who represented the West Indies in the days before they achieved Test status. His primary role was as a left-arm spinner, but was regarded as a reasonable batsman. Pascall was related to the Constantine family; he was the maternal uncle of Elias and...
was also a Trinidad and West Indian first-class cricketer; a third family member, Constantine's brother Elias
Elias Constantine
Elias Constantine was a Trinidadian cricketer who played first-class cricket for Trinidad between 1932 and 1949. He was the younger brother of Learie Constantine, who represented West Indies in Test matches; his father Lebrun and uncle Victor Pascall also played representative cricket for West...
also later represented Trinidad.
Although the family was not wealthy, Constantine considered his childhood a happy one and believed that he and his siblings were luckier than many other children. Constantine spent much of his childhood playing in the hills near his home or on the estates of his father and grandfather. He enjoyed cricket from an early age, and played with his whole family who regularly practised together under the supervision of Lebrun and Victor Pascall.
Constantine was taught in Port of Spain at the St Ann's Government School until the age of 12, and then at St Ann's Roman Catholic School until 1917. He displayed little enthusiasm for learning and never reached a high enough standard to achieve a scholarship to college. Rather than his academic achievements, he was known as a keen sportsman and respected for his cricketing lineage. At his second school, he proved to be a good footballer and sprinter. Coached and encouraged by Andrew de Four, the headmaster, he also played for the school cricket team, which he captained in his last two years. By this time, he had built a reputation as an exceptionally good cricketer; an attacking batsman and a good fast-medium bowler, he excelled as a fielder. His father prohibited Constantine from playing competitive club cricket until 1920 for fear of the detrimental effect on his cricket of being exposed to top-class opposition at an early age; he also wanted his son to establish a career before playing competitive cricket.
Upon leaving school, Constantine joined Jonathan Ryan, a solicitors in Port of Spain as a clerk; this was a possible route into the legal profession. However, as a member of the black lower-middle class, he was unlikely to progress far: few black Trinidadians at this time became solicitors and he faced many social restrictions owing to his colour.
Cricket in Trinidad
Constantine played cricket for Shannon Cricket Club; he first played for the team in 1916, before his father stopped him playing. When he returned to the team in 1920, he played for the second teamReserve team
Large professional sports clubs often have far more players under contract than could possibly play in a match. As a result, many of these clubs create second teams composed of players who need playing time, but have little hope of playing on the first team. The players on this second team are...
, but after scoring 50 runs
Run (cricket)
In the sport of cricket, a run is the basic unit of scoring. Runs are scored by a batsman, and the aggregate of the scores of a team's batsmen constitutes the team's score. A batsman scoring 50 or 100 runs , or any higher multiple of 50 runs, is considered a particular achievement...
in an hour during his third game, he was promoted to the first eleven
First eleven
First eleven or first XI may refer to the eleven players in an organisation's leading team, particularly a cricket team or association football team....
. Cricket in Trinidad at the time was divided along racial lines. For cricket clubs on the island, the colour of a player's skin was crucial. Shannon was associated with black lower middle-class players such as teachers or clerks. The club were highly competitive and motivated, partly as a reaction to the racial discrimination that its players and supporters encountered in their daily lives, and took cricket very seriously. Constantine's cricket thrived in this atmosphere, but the club also helped to form some of his political views. He particularly noticed that in Trinidadian and West Indian cricket, white and light-skinned players were often favoured over black players with greater ability.
Constantine's reputation continued to grow as he played for Shannon. One innings he played in 1921 against renowned fast bowler George John
George John
George John was a West Indian fast bowler.George John was a very fast bowler in his prime and could cut the ball into the batsmen. He toured England with West Indies side in 1923 but by then was past his best. He claimed 90 wickets at 14.68 in all matches, 49 of them at 19.51 in first class matches...
was widely commented on, but according to C. L. R. James
C. L. R. James
Cyril Lionel Robert James , who sometimes wrote under the pen-name J.R. Johnson, was an Afro-Trinidadian historian, journalist, socialist theorist and essayist. His works are influential in various theoretical, social, and historiographical contexts...
, this was the only time he played in such an effective way until 1928. Even so, the white captain of the Trinidad team, Major Bertie Harragin
Bertie Harragin
Alfred Ernest Albert Harragin was a West Indian cricketer who toured England in 1906 and was a member of the Trinidad team from 1896-97 when aged 19 to 1931-32 when he was 54. He was a hard hitting right-handed batsman.He was educated at Queen's Royal College in Trinidad where he excelled as an...
, detected promise in Constantine and encouraged him. Constantine's father was still in the Trinidad team at this time, but did not put himself forward for selection in 1921 in the hope that his son would replace him. Harragin selected Constantine junior to play in the Inter-Colonial Tournament
Inter-Colonial Tournament
The Inter-Colonial Tournament was the main first class cricket competition in the West Indies before World War II.- Competing teams :* Barbados* British Guiana* Trinidad...
in Trinidad's match against British Guiana
Guyana national cricket team
The Guyana cricket team is the representative first class cricket team of Guyana.It does not take part in any international competitions, but rather in inter-regional competitions in the Caribbean, such as the Carib Beer Cup and the KFC Cup, and the best players may be selected for the West Indies...
. But Constantine missed that match when he arrived late after a newspaper advertised the wrong starting time. Instead, he made his first-class debut in the following match, the final of the tournament, against Barbados
Barbados national cricket team
The Barbadian cricket team is the representative first class cricket team of Barbados.It does not take part in any international competitions , but rather in inter-regional competitions in the Caribbean, such as the Regional Four Day Competition and the WICB Cup, and the best players may be...
on 21 September 1921. He scored a duck
Duck (cricket)
In the sport of cricket, a duck refers to a batsman's dismissal for a score of zero.-Origin of the term:The term is a shortening of the term "duck's egg", the latter being used long before Test cricket began...
in his first innings, batting at number eight in the batting order
Batting order (cricket)
In cricket, the batting order is the sequence in which batsmen play through their team's innings, there always being two batsmen taking part at any one time...
. After taking two wickets at a cost of 44 runs in Barbados' only innings, he scored 24 in his second innings, batting this time at number three. Constantine played in Trinidad's next games, in the next Inter-Colonial Tournament in Guiana twelve months later. Although in two games he scored only 45 runs and took four wickets, commentators considered his fielding in the covers to be exceptional and he retained his place in the team largely as a fielder.
Although Trinidad lost to Barbados in the final, the Barbados captain Harold Austin
Harold Austin
Sir Harold Bruce Gardiner Austin OBE was a West Indian politician and cricketer. He was known as H.B.G.....
, who was also the captain of the West Indies team, was impressed by Constantine. Mainly on the strength of his fielding, Austin secured Constantine's selection for the 1923 West Indian tour of England; it was a surprising choice as there were other candidates appeared to have stronger cricketing merits. By now, Constantine had left the solicitors Jonathan Ryan to join the law firm of Llewellyn Roberts, a larger practice which paid more. As his new employer's longer working hours restricted Constantine's cricket practice, when he was selected for the West Indies he resigned his position.
Tour of England in 1923
The West Indies tour of England in 1923, under the captaincy of Austin, was a successful one; the team played 21 first-class matches, of which six were won, seven lost and the others drawn. The team's effectiveness, and particularly the success of leading batsman George ChallenorGeorge Challenor
George Challenor was a West Indian cricketer who was part of the first West Indies Test side. He was recognised as the first great West Indian batsman, his obituary in Wisden Cricketer's Almanack ending with the words "His admirable batting did much toward raising cricket in West Indies to Test...
, persuaded English critics that West Indian cricket was stronger than previously supposed and helped the West Indies to attain Test match status in 1928. The biggest individual success of the tour was George Challenor
George Challenor
George Challenor was a West Indian cricketer who was part of the first West Indies Test side. He was recognised as the first great West Indian batsman, his obituary in Wisden Cricketer's Almanack ending with the words "His admirable batting did much toward raising cricket in West Indies to Test...
, but Constantine impressed English critics through his style of play more than his statistical success. Constantine played 20 first-class matches on the tour, scoring 425 runs at an average of 15.74 and taking 37 wickets at an average
Bowling average
Bowling average is a statistic measuring the performance of bowlers in the sport of cricket.A bowler's bowling average is defined as the total number of runs conceded by the bowlers divided by the number of wickets taken by the bowler, so the lower the average the better. It is similar to earned...
of 21.86. These were not regarded as good figures and although his batting and bowling occasionally impressed, he was inconsistent. Against Oxford University
Oxford University Cricket Club
Oxford University Cricket Club is a first-class cricket team, representing the University of Oxford. It plays its home games at the University Parks in Oxford, England...
, he scored 77, his maiden first-class fifty, but his only other half century came against Derbyshire
Derbyshire County Cricket Club
Derbyshire County Cricket Club is one of the 18 major county clubs which make up the England and Wales domestic cricket structure, representing the historic county of Derbyshire...
; he also took five wickets in an innings for the first time, in the match against Kent
Kent County Cricket Club
Kent County Cricket Club is one of the 18 first class county county cricket clubs which make up the English and Welsh national cricket structure, representing the county of Kent...
, but he did not take more than three wickets in any other innings on the tour.
Even so, Wisden Cricketers' Almanack
Wisden Cricketers' Almanack
Wisden Cricketers' Almanack is a cricket reference book published annually in the United Kingdom...
commented that his batting, while highly unorthodox in technique, could be very effective when he was in form. Wisden also noted that his bowling was fast. Several English players, including Jack Hobbs
Jack Hobbs
Sir John Berry "Jack" Hobbs was an English professional cricketer who played for Surrey from 1905 to 1934 and for England in 61 Test matches from 1908 to 1930....
, singled out Constantine as an unusually talented cricketer on the strength of his performances in 1923. Commentators considered him to be an exceptional fielder; Pelham Warner, a former England captain and influential journalist and administrator, described Constantine after the tour as the best fielder in the world, while he was praised by the press and in the pages of Wisden. James later wrote: "He is a success, but he has not set the Thames on fire, and, what is more, he hasn't tried to."
Mid-1920s career
John ArlottJohn Arlott
Leslie Thomas John Arlott OBE was an English journalist, author and cricket commentator for the BBC's Test Match Special. He was also a poet, wine connoisseur and former police officer in Hampshire...
later commented that, on his first tour of England, "[Constantine] learnt much that he never forgot, by no means all of it about cricket: and he recognised the game as his only possible ladder to the kind of life he wanted." When Constantine returned to Trinidad, he had no permanent job and little prospect of advancement in any suitable profession. He took several temporary jobs but was often forced to rely financially upon his family. But by this stage, he had decided to pursue a career as a professional cricketer in England, and began to practise with this target in mind. Although he scored 167 for Shannon in 1924, and took eight for 38 for Trinidad against Barbados, Constantine's cricket was steady but not particularly successful in this period. His performances did not stand out and he was dropped from the West Indies team to face the MCC touring team during 1926. He was recalled for the following match, once again at the insistence of Austin, who wanted a good cover fielder in the team. Constantine was also involved in an incident over short-pitched bowling
Bouncer (cricket)
In the sport of cricket, a bouncer is a type of delivery, usually bowled by a fast bowler. It is pitched short so that it bounces on the pitch well short of the batsman and rears up to chest or head height as it reaches the batsman.Bouncers are used tactically to drive the batsman back on to his...
. The MCC fast bowlers had bowled short at Austin, who was nearly 50; in retaliation, Constantine bounced the MCC captain, Freddie Calthorpe
Freddie Calthorpe
Frederick Somerset Gough Calthorpe , styled The Honourable from 1912, was an English cricketer....
and only stopped after C. L. R. James pointed out the diplomatic row which would follow if Calthorpe, an important figure in the British establishment
The Establishment
The Establishment is a term used to refer to a visible dominant group or elite that holds power or authority in a nation. The term suggests a closed social group which selects its own members...
, was hit by the ball. Once more, his performances were not statistically impressive but his style impressed critics and spectators, and he came top of the West Indies bowling averages.
A new, permanent job with Trinidad Leaseholds allowed Constantine to devote more time to cricket; he had time to practise and the firm were happy to allow him to play representative cricket. Constantine realised that to succeed as a professional cricketer, his performances needed to improve and he had to fulfil some of the potential which critics had recognised since his first appearances. His bowling was not particularly fast and while batting he often got out playing shots which were too adventurous. After his relative failure in 1926, he increased his level of practice. He improved his fitness and trained to become a slip fielder so that he could conserve energy for bowling. To become a genuine fast bowler, he increased the pace of his bowling and developed greater stamina. By the time trial matches were arranged for the 1928 tour of England, his cricket had improved to the point where he took five for 32 and scored 63 in the second trial match and he was chosen to go to England. When he went, he left behind his wife, whom he had married in 1927, and his newly-born daughter.
Tour of England in 1928
Before embarking on the 1928 tour, Constantine planned to be successful and entertaining enough to secure a contract to play cricket professionally in England. With this aim, he ensured that he was in peak physical condition when the tour began. James wrote that Constantine "had revolted against the revolting contrast between his first-class status as a cricketer and his third-class status as a man ... The restraints imposed upon him by social conditions in the West Indies had become intolerable and he decided to stand them no longer." C. L. R. James later wrote that Constantine would never have left Trinidad had he been able to live with "honour [and] a little profit".Aside from his personal success, Constantine was also conscious that his cricket had to be entertaining: the tourists had to be attractive for spectators to encourage public interest and ensure the financial success of this and future tours. He began the tour in good form; in the opening first-class match, against Derbyshire
Derbyshire County Cricket Club
Derbyshire County Cricket Club is one of the 18 major county clubs which make up the England and Wales domestic cricket structure, representing the historic county of Derbyshire...
, he began his second innings with the West Indians needing 40 runs to win; in seven scoring shots, Constantine hit 31 runs and took the team to a two-wicket victory. In the following match, he scored 130 in 90 minutes, his maiden first-class century, against Essex
Essex County Cricket Club
Essex County Cricket Club is one of the 18 major county clubs which make up the English and Welsh national cricket structure, representing the historic county of Essex. Its limited overs team is called the Essex Eagles, their team colours this season are blue.The club plays most of its home games...
to give his team a first-innings lead. Against Surrey
Surrey County Cricket Club
Surrey County Cricket Club is one of the 18 professional county clubs which make up the English and Welsh domestic cricket structure, representing the historic county of Surrey. Its limited overs team is called the Surrey Lions...
he scored two fifties in a drawn game; the second innings averted a West Indian defeat after the early batsmen had failed. In the following games, Constantine scored another fifty against Oxford University and took ten wickets in the game against Cambridge University
Cambridge University Cricket Club
Cambridge University Cricket Club is a first-class cricket team. It now plays all but one of its first-class cricket matches as part of the Cambridge University Centre of Cricketing Excellence , which includes Anglia Ruskin University...
, but it was the Middlesex
Middlesex County Cricket Club
Middlesex County Cricket Club is one of the 18 major county clubs which make up the English and Welsh domestic cricket structure, representing the historic county of Middlesex. It was announced in February 2009 that Middlesex changed their limited overs name from the Middlesex Crusaders, to the...
which brought Constantine to the widest attention.
Prior to the game, Constantine was struggling for fitness, but conscious that he was the star attraction and that success was important in a high-profile game, he chose to play. Middlesex batted first, but Constantine bowled little owing to his injury. Middlesex reached 352 before declaring the innings closed
Declaration and forfeiture
In the sport of cricket a declaration occurs when a captain declares his team's innings closed and a forfeiture is when a captain chooses to forfeit an innings. Declaration and forfeiture are covered in Law 14 of the Laws of cricket...
and West Indies were struggling at 79 for five when Constantine came into bat. He scored 50 runs in 18 minutes and went on to score 86 in under an hour to avert the follow-on
Follow-on
Follow-on is a term used in the sport of cricket to describe a situation where the team that bats second is forced to take its second batting innings immediately after its first, because the team was not able to get close enough to the score achieved by the first team batting in the first innings...
. When Middlesex batted again, he took seven for 57 in a spell of extremely fast bowling to bowl Middlesex out for 136. West Indies needed 259 to win but looked likely to lose when Constantine returned to bat with the score 121 for five. This time, he scored 103 in 60 minutes, hitting two sixes and 12 fours and taking West Indies to a three-wicket victory. The spectators and Middlesex members gave him a standing ovation and cheered enthusiastically; for players and spectators this was the defining match of Constantine's career. Writing many years later, cricket writer E. W. Swanton
E. W. Swanton
Ernest William Swanton CBE is chiefly known for being a cricket writer and commentator under his initials, E. W. Swanton. He worked as a sports journalist for The Daily Telegraph and as a broadcaster for BBC Radio for 30 years. He was a regular commentator on Test Match Special, easily recognised...
noted that there were few all-round performances in the history of cricket to match it. Shortly after the game, Nelson
Nelson Cricket Club
Nelson Cricket Club, based at Seedhill in Nelson, Lancashire, are a cricket club in the Lancashire League. They play at the Seedhill ground in Nelson. Their captain for the 2011 season is Thomas Lord and their professional is New Zealand international player Luke Woodcock.Nelson Cricket Club was...
, a cricket club in the Lancashire League, offered Constantine a professional contract, which was his aim at the start of the tour.
The rest of Constantine's tour was successful; he was particularly successful against Northamptonshire
Northamptonshire County Cricket Club
Northamptonshire County Cricket Club is one of the 18 major county clubs which make up the English and Welsh domestic cricket structure, representing the historic county of Northamptonshire. Its limited overs team is called the Northants Steelbacks. The traditional club colour is Maroon. During the...
, taking 13 wickets in the game, including a hat-trick, and scoring 107 in his only innings. Only in the Test matches, the first played by West Indies, was he less effective. Although he took West Indies first wicket in Test cricket, dismissing Charlie Hallows
Charlie Hallows
Charles Hallows was a cricketer who played for Lancashire and England....
, and took four for 82 on his debut, he took only five wickets in the three Test matches at an average of 52.40; with the bat, he scored 89 runs in six innings at 14.83. Even so, Jack Hobbs
Jack Hobbs
Sir John Berry "Jack" Hobbs was an English professional cricketer who played for Surrey from 1905 to 1934 and for England in 61 Test matches from 1908 to 1930....
said that Constantine's opening overs to him in the first Test were among the fastest he ever faced, and Constantine was criticised for bowling short at the England batsmen in the second Test. When the tour ended, Constantine had scored more runs and taken more wickets and catches than any other tourist. He was second in the team's batting averages with 1,381 runs at 34.52 and led the bowling averages with 107 wickets at 22.95. However, he bowled far more than any of his team-mates and believed that his captain, Karl Nunes
Karl Nunes
Robert Karl Nunes was a West Indian cricketer who played in West Indies' first Test in their inaugural Test tour of England as wicketkeeper and captain....
, over-bowled him; the pair did not get along well on the tour. But it was the manner in which Constantine played which set him apart from the restrained form of cricket played in England at the time: his style, aggression and entertaining cricket made a big impression on the crowds. According to Peter Mason in his biography of Constantine, he established a unique style of West Indian cricket and possibly established the template for West Indian cricketers for years to come.
Series against England and Australia
When Constantine returned to Trinidad, his good form continued in the Intercolonial Tournament; in the two matches, he took 16 wickets and in the final against Barbados scored 133, the highest score of his career and Trinidad's highest innings in the competition until then. Trinidad won the competition and Constantine was praised on the island. These were his last matches in the tournament for Trinidad as the rules at the time did not permit professional cricketers to take part. Constantine played one match in Jamaica for a West Indies team against an English touring team and then travelled to Nelson to begin his professional career.Following his first season in Nelson in 1929, Constantine returned to the West Indies to face England in another Test series, making a visit to New York along the way. Although the English touring team contained some famous names, the Marylebone Cricket Club
Marylebone Cricket Club
Marylebone Cricket Club is a cricket club in London founded in 1787. Its influence and longevity now witness it as a private members' club dedicated to the development of cricket. It owns, and is based at, Lord's Cricket Ground in St John's Wood, London NW8. MCC was formerly the governing body of...
(MCC) who administered English cricket at the time, sent out two parallel teams at the same time in 1929–30; the West Indies touring party contained two players in their fifties, Wilfred Rhodes
Wilfred Rhodes
Wilfred Rhodes was an English professional cricketer who played 58 Test matches for England between 1899 and 1930. In Tests, Rhodes took 127 wickets in and scored 2,325 runs, becoming the first Englishman to complete the double of 1,000 runs and 100 wickets in Test matches...
and George Gunn
George Gunn
George Gunn was an English cricketer who played in 15 Tests from 1907 to 1930. Along with other notable batsmen such as Jack Hobbs, Frank Woolley and Phil Mead, he was one of a group who, beginning their first-class careers in the Edwardian Era, seemed to go on for ever...
. The first Test was drawn and while Constantine did little with the bat, he contributed a long spell of bowling and fielded well, holding several catches. This was enough for him to be regarded as the star performer and he was awarded a bat for his contribution. However, the MCC captain criticised his use of short bowling with fielders concentrated on the leg side
Leg side
The leg side, or on side, is defined to be a particular half of the field used to play the sport of cricket.From the point of view of a right-handed batsman facing the bowler, it is the left hand side of the cricket field...
; such bowling struck the 40-year-old Andy Sandham
Andy Sandham
Andrew Sandham was an English cricketer, a right-handed batsman who played 14 Test matches between 1921 and 1930. He scored over 40,000 first-class runs, but bowled only very rarely; he took just 18 wickets in his career.Sandham made his Surrey debut in 1911, and was capped in 1913...
and Constantine only reverted to more conventional tactics after a request from the MCC manager. Bill Voce
Bill Voce
Bill Voce was an English cricketer. He played for the Nottinghamshire and England, and was an instrumental part of England's infamous Bodyline tour of Australia in 1932–1933.-Life and career:...
pursued similar tactics earlier in the match and knocked out one of the home batsmen. Constantine then played twice for Trinidad against the MCC team. Cramp prevented him bowling in the second game and he failed with the bat, but took nine catches in total and he believed his was fielding better than he had ever done. During the second Test, which also took place in Trinidad, Constantine scored a rapid 58 and took six wickets but West Indies lost by 167 runs. Compensation came in the following match when West Indies recorded their first win in Test matches. Centuries from George Headley
George Headley
George Alphonso Headley was a West Indian cricketer who played 22 Test matches, mostly before the Second World War. Considered one of the best batsmen to play for West Indies and one of the greatest cricketers of all time, Headley also represented Jamaica and played professional club cricket in...
and Clifford Roach
Clifford Roach
Clifford Archibald Roach was a West Indian cricketer who played in West Indies' first Test in their inaugural Test tour of England....
paved the way, and Constantine took four for 35 and five for 87 to secure the victory. Constantine was left out of the final match mainly for political reasons. In the series, 29 men represented West Indies and each match had a different home captain. Expenses and island politics meant that selectors tended to pick players from the island hosting the Test. In the three matches he played, Constantine scored 144 runs at 14.40 and took 18 wickets at 27.61.
After his second season at Nelson, Constantine joined the first West Indies team to tour Australia. The side felt some trepidation over the reception that the black members of the side would receive, but the tour passed off without incident and Constantine later praised the reception the team received. The team was captained by Jackie Grant
Jackie Grant
George Copeland Grant was a West Indian cricketer who captained the side through several series.Grant was born in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago. He captained the West Indies' team in the 1930-31, 1933, 1934-35 series...
, a white man who had played for Cambridge University but had not seen any of the team play recently. Constantine considered this to be unsatisfactory from the team's point of view and he felt it affected performances. West Indies were heavily defeated in the five-Test series, losing the first four matches before winning the last match for their first overseas victory. Constantine achieved little in the series, scoring just 72 runs at 7.20 and taking eight wickets at 50.87. In other first-class games, he was more successful and although Headley performed very well, it was Constantine who proved immensely popular with spectators. Even before the Tests began, his fielding drew praise from the press and he was described in The Sydney Mail
The Sydney Mail
The Sydney Mail was an Australian magazine published weekly in Sydney. The weekly edition of The Sydney Morning Herald newspaper, it ran from 1860 to 1938....
as the fastest bowler seen in Australia for years. Monty Noble
Monty Noble
Montague Alfred Noble was an Australian cricketer who played for New South Wales and Australia. A right-hand batsman, right-handed bowler who could deliver both medium pace and off-break bowling, capable fieldsman and tactically sound captain, Noble is considered as one of the great Australian...
, a former Australian captain writing in the Sydney Sun
The Sun (Australia)
The Sun was an afternoon tabloid newspaper, first published in 1910, by Fairfax Media in Sydney, Australia as the afternoon companion to the The Sydney Morning Herald.It was last published in March, 1988...
described a rapid innings of 59 runs as "sensational" and one of the best played in Australia since the war. Among his other achievements were five-wicket returns against Victoria, Tasmania and New South Wales, a century in 52 minutes against Tasmania, innings of 75 and 97 in the match against Queensland, 63 runs against South Australia and 93 in the New South Wales game. For all his success against the state teams, his fielding was the biggest attraction; in 1950, Donald Bradman
Donald Bradman
Sir Donald George Bradman, AC , often referred to as "The Don", was an Australian cricketer, widely acknowledged as the greatest batsman of all time...
who played against Constantine that season, described him as the greatest fielder he had seen. In all first-class matches, Constantine scored 708 runs at an average of 30.78 and took 47 wickets at 20.21; he led the team's bowling averages and came fourth in batting.
Test series against England in 1933 and 1934–5
By now living in Nelson and barred from the Inter-colonial Tournament, Constantine did not return to Trinidad to play cricket for several seasons, and he did not play first-class cricket for two years. Owing to his contract with Nelson, Constantine was unavailable for much of the West Indies' tour of England under the captaincy of Jackie Grant in 1933. Constantine never took issue with this, although some critics claimed he was swayed by the greater financial rewards provided by Nelson. He appeared once for the tourists in May, scoring 57 in 27 minutes and taking four wickets in a victory over an MCC team at Lord's. In this match, he and Manny MartindaleManny Martindale
Emmanuel Alfred Martindale was a West Indian cricketer who played in ten Tests from 1933 to 1939. He was a right-arm fast bowler and a lower-order right-handed batsman....
, another West Indian fast bowler, were criticised in the press for bowling short at the MCC batsmen. The West Indian board unsuccessfully tried to negotiate his release for the first Test match, which West Indies lost heavily. After he appeared in some mid-week games for the West Indies, taking nine wickets in the game against Yorkshire
Yorkshire County Cricket Club
Yorkshire County Cricket Club represents the historic county of Yorkshire as one of the 18 major county clubs which make up the English and Welsh domestic cricket structure....
, Nelson gave him permission to appear in the second Test at Manchester.
During the previous winter, England had played Australia in the controversial Bodyline
Bodyline
Bodyline, also known as fast leg theory bowling, was a cricketing tactic devised by the English cricket team for their 1932–33 Ashes tour of Australia, specifically to combat the extraordinary batting skill of Australia's Don Bradman...
series in which the English bowlers were accused of bowling the ball roughly on the line of leg stump. The deliveries
Delivery (cricket)
A delivery or ball in cricket is a single action of bowling a cricket ball towards the batsman.During play of the game, a member of the fielding team is designated as the bowler, and bowls deliveries towards the batsman...
were often short-pitched with four or five fielders close by on the leg side waiting to catch deflections off the bat. The tactics were difficult for batsmen to counter and were designed to be intimidatory. By the 1933 season, it had become a sensitive subject. In the game against Yorkshire, Grant was frustrated to discover that the home team had prepared a soft pitch which reduced the effectiveness of fast bowling and he ordered Constantine to bowl Bodyline. The tactics were not effective in that instance, but Grant and Constantine discussed the matter further and decided to use Bodyline during the second Test. West Indies scored 375, of which Constantine scored 31. When England replied, several batsmen were discomfited by the Bodyline bowling; Wally Hammond
Wally Hammond
Walter Reginald "Wally" Hammond was an English Test cricketer who played for Gloucestershire in a career that lasted from 1920 to 1951. Beginning his career as a professional, he later became an amateur and was appointed captain of England...
was struck on the chin and retired hurt. Constantine and Martindale bowled up to four short deliveries each over so that the ball rose to head height; occasionally they bowled around the wicket. Although not as fast as he had been on the previous tour, Constantine was still capable of short bursts of very fast bowling. Even so, the England captain Douglas Jardine
Douglas Jardine
Douglas Robert Jardine was an English cricketer and captain of the England cricket team from 1931 to 1933–34.When describing cricket seasons, the convention used is that a single year represents an English cricket season, while two years represent a southern hemisphere cricket season because it...
, the man responsible for the Bodyline tactics used in Australia, batted for five hours to score his only Test century. Many critics praised Jardine's batting and bravery in the game. The ball carried through slowly on another soft pitch, which reduced the effectiveness of the Bodyline tactics, and Constantine took one for 55. The public disapproval expressed during and after the match was instrumental in turning English attitudes against Bodyline, an attitude Constantine considered hypocritical. In West Indies second innings, England also bowled Bodyline, but Constantine's innings of 64 in an hour ensured that the match was drawn.
Constantine played only one more first-class game on the tour; in all first-class games, he scored 181 runs at 20.11 and took 14 wickets at 22.14. The team management negotiated a deal with Nelson to release him for the third Test, where Essex
Essex County Cricket Club
Essex County Cricket Club is one of the 18 major county clubs which make up the English and Welsh national cricket structure, representing the historic county of Essex. Its limited overs team is called the Essex Eagles, their team colours this season are blue.The club plays most of its home games...
all-rounder Stan Nichols
Stan Nichols
Stan Nichols was the leading all-rounder in English cricket for much of the 1930s.-Career:In his youth primarily a football goalkeeper who played for some time with Queen's Park Rangers,...
was arranged as a substitute for the club team. When Jardine heard, he convinced the England selectors to include Nichols in the team for the Test, the deal collapsed and Constantine did not play. Overall, critics believed that the team underachieved; Constantine believed one cause was the inexperience of Grant as captain.
Constantine's next first-class cricket came late in 1934, when he went to India to coach and play in the Moin-ud-Dowlah Gold Cup Tournament. He played two matches which were later given first-class status, and nearly represented the Europeans cricket team
Europeans cricket team
The Europeans cricket team was an Indian first-class cricket team which took part in the annual Bombay tournament. The team was founded by members of the European community in Bombay who played cricket at the Bombay Gymkhana....
in the Bombay Quadrangular
Bombay Quadrangular
The Bombay Quadrangular was an influential cricket tournament held in Bombay, India from 1912 to 1936. At other times it was known variously as the Presidency Match, Bombay Triangular, and the Bombay Pentangular....
tournament until critics disagreed over his eligibility. Constantine returned to Nelson in December 1934, in time to receive a telegram
Telegraphy
Telegraphy is the long-distance transmission of messages via some form of signalling technology. Telegraphy requires messages to be converted to a code which is known to both sender and receiver...
from the West Indies Board inviting him to play in the Test series against England to be played in early 1935. The message arrived too late for him to play in the first Test, won by England, but he travelled with his family to Trinidad, where the second Test was played, and played in the remainder of the four-match series.
When the MCC team played Trinidad in two matches preceding the second Test, Constantine took a total of 10 wickets in the games. In the second, he played with his brother Elias
Elias Constantine
Elias Constantine was a Trinidadian cricketer who played first-class cricket for Trinidad between 1932 and 1949. He was the younger brother of Learie Constantine, who represented West Indies in Test matches; his father Lebrun and uncle Victor Pascall also played representative cricket for West...
for the only time in a first-class match; the brothers shared a partnership of 93. In the first innings of the Test, Constantine scored 90, his highest Test score. West Indies had the advantage for much of the game and left England needing 325 to win in the fourth innings. The tourists aimed to achieve a draw but lost early wickets. In the final stages of the match, Constantine was warned by the umpire that he was bowling Bodyline and Jackie Grant withdrew him from the bowling attack, to Constantine's displeasure. When the crowd protested, Constantine returned to bowl and with only two balls of the match left, he took the last English wicket. West Indies had won by 217 runs and Constantine had taken three for 11; in the match, he scored 121 runs and took five wickets. The third Test was drawn, leaving the final Test to decide the series. After making a big total, West Indies bowled England out twice to win by an innings and record their first Test series victory. As well as taking six wickets in the game, Constantine captained the team to victory after Grant injured an ankle on the last morning and asked Constantine to assume the leadership in his absence. Peter Mason writes: "Given the measures that the West Indian authorities had taken to ensure that no black man would ever captain a regional side, it was a great irony and a huge source of delight to Constantine that he should be the man to lead the team at the moment of their greatest achievement so far." Once more, the press praised Constantine and hailed his achievements. In the series, he scored 169 runs at an average of 33.80 and took 15 wickets at 13.13.
Tour of England in 1939
Apart from one match in early 1939, when he appeared by invitation for Barbados in a friendly match, Constantine did not play any first-class cricket until West Indies toured England in 1939. In that time, West Indies did not play any Test matches. Constantine had deliberately not signed for the Lancashire League in 1939 to be available for the tour; he realised his age made future tours unlikely. However, he was not happy with either the playing strength of the touring team, nor with the £600 he was offered for the tour West Indies lost the three-match Test series 1–0 against a very strong England side. Their performances improved as the series progressed and the team were on top for stages of the latter two Tests. Rain and the preparations for the Second World War, which cut the tour short, brought disruption to several games. Overall, critics judged the playing record of the team to be good, and Hubert PrestonHubert Preston
Hubert Preston was a journalist and writer who was editor of Wisden Cricketers' Almanack for eight years from the 1944 edition to the 1951 edition....
, the editor of Wisden, wrote that the tour "brought considerable distinction to the team". Nevertheless, Constantine and the captain, Rolph Grant
Rolph Grant
Rolph Stewart Grant was a West Indian cricketer who captained them in their 1939 tour of England.Grant was born in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago.-References:...
, did not get along. Constantine believed Grant was appointed simply because he was white and that he was unsuited to the job. Constantine captained the side in one match but was reprimanded by the West Indies board for not pursuing a win and replaced for the next game.
By now aged 38, Constantine no longer bowled fast but generally at medium pace from a short run-up. To compensate for his reduced pace, he mixed up his bowling style to deceive the batsmen, spinning the ball and bowling at speeds from quite slow to occasionally very fast. He bowled more overs than any other member of the team and was the leading wicket-taker with 103 wickets in the season at an average of 17.77. He led the team's bowling averages, and came seventh in the bowling averages for the season. Preston, in Wisden, noted that "in bowling Constantine stood out by himself". With the bat, Constantine scored 614 runs at 21.17, and Norman Preston wrote that Constantine "often electrified onlookers with his almost impudent zest for runs". His highest innings came in the final Test match when he scored 79 in an hour, out of 103 runs while he was batting, and hit 11 fours. Wisden commented: "Constantine, in the mood suggesting his work in Saturday afternoon League cricket, brought a welcome air of gaiety to the Test arena. He revolutionised all the recognised features of cricket and, surpassing Bradman in his amazing stroke play, he was absolutely impudent in his aggressive treatment of bowling shared by Nichols and Perks." In the three Tests, Constantine scored 110 runs at 27.50 and took 11 wickets at 29.81, including five for 75 in the final Test. Preston considered his fielding to be excellent, and selected him as one of Wisden's Cricketers of the Year
Wisden Cricketers of the Year
The Wisden Cricketers of the Year are cricketers selected for the honour by the annual publication Wisden Cricketers' Almanack, based primarily on their "influence on the previous English season"...
for his performances in the season.
The third Test match, after which the tour was abandoned owing to the war, was Constantine's last. In 18 matches, he scored 635 runs at an average of 19.24, took 58 wickets at 30.10 and held 28 catches. He played just once more in first-class cricket, when he captained a team representing the "Dominions" against England at Lord's; Constantine was the only black player in the game. The match, regarded as one of the most exciting played at Lord's, as narrowly won by the Dominions. Constantine, in the second innings, shared a partnership of 117 in 45 minutes with Keith Miller
Keith Miller
Keith Ross Miller MBE was an Australian Test cricketer and a Royal Australian Air Force pilot during World War II. Miller is widely regarded as Australia's greatest ever all-rounder. Because of his ability, irreverent manner and good looks he was a crowd favourite...
; Constantine scored 40 runs. He did not bowl much as he considered himself too slow, but ran out a batsman at a key point in the final innings. In all first-class cricket, Constantine scored 4,475 runs at 24.05 and took 439 wickets at 20.48.
Lancashire League cricketer
During the tour of England in 1928, Constantine signed an initial three-year contract with Nelson, to play in the Lancashire League. The contract was worth £500 per season, plus performance bonuses and travelling expenses. He remained there until 1937, an unusually long time for a professional to remain with a club. Constantine's appearances in the Lancashire League boosted attendances and gate receipts for all Nelson's matches and helped the club to clear its debts. Historians of the league have calculated that he increased gate receipts by £100 for games in which he played; overall league attendances went up by 50,000 across the season and Nelson's gate money made up three-quarters of the total for all league clubs. The financial stability brought by Constantine's popularity allowed other clubs to attract high-profile professionals. He also brought sporting success: in his nine seasons at the club, Nelson never finished lower than second and won the league competition seven times; the team also twice won the knockout cup. Constantine was well-rewarded for his role; he renewed his contract in 1931 for £650 each year and when a rival league attempted to poach Constantine in 1935, all the Lancashire League clubs contributed to his wage, which rose to £750 per year between 1935 and 1937. This wage was far more than the maximum wage for a professional footballer at the time and probably made Constantine the best-paid sportsman in the country. It also placed him among the top earners in Nelson, receiving far more pay than those who watched him. Consequently, he and his family had a good standard of living for the first time in their lives.As Nelson's professional, Constantine played during Saturday afternoon matches and in weekday evening knockout games. He also had coaching commitments during the week. On the field, he was immediately successful and looking back, he saw his first season at Nelson as the best of his life owing to the freedom and excitement of the cricket he played. Even so, he improved his figures in subsequent seasons. In nine years at the club, he scored 6,363 runs at an average of 37.65 and took 776 wickets at 9.50. His highest score was 192, and his best bowling figures were ten wickets for ten runs. In each season except for 1932, he averaged over 30 with the bat and in 1933 he scored 1,000 runs at an average of over 50. He took over 70 wickets every season and his bowling average never rose above 11.30; in five seasons, he averaged under ten runs per wicket. In 1933, he took 96 wickets, his highest aggregate, and had he not missed two games to play for the West Indies touring team, would likely have completed the double, an unprecedented feat in the league. Constantine enjoyed league cricket and preferred its brand of cricket to what he perceived as the negativity and dullness of county cricket. He believed the standard of play was very high, stating "Never in my life have I played harder than in Lancashire." In his history of West Indies cricket, Michael Manley
Michael Manley
Michael Norman Manley ON OCC was the fourth Prime Minister of Jamaica . Manley was a democratic socialist....
notes that league cricket at this time was intense and unrelenting, comparable to modern one-day cricket. But, "it was in this special atmosphere of League cricket that Constantine was supreme."
For the 1938 season, Constantine played for Rochdale
Rochdale
Rochdale is a large market town in Greater Manchester, England. It lies amongst the foothills of the Pennines on the River Roch, north-northwest of Oldham, and north-northeast of the city of Manchester. Rochdale is surrounded by several smaller settlements which together form the Metropolitan...
in the Central Lancashire Cricket League
Central Lancashire Cricket League
The Central Lancashire League is a fifteen team cricket league, traditionally based in Lancashire, England. It is now based around Greater Manchester and West Yorkshire. The league runs competitions at First Team, Second Team, Third Team, Under 18, Under 15, Under 13 and Under 11 levels.The...
, although he continued to live in Nelson. He received £812 for the season, and performed successfully. But he did not enjoy the experience owing to what he perceived as a more selfish attitude among the players, some of whom seemed jealous of his earnings, and the different nature of pitches in his new league. Furthermore, there was an incident of racial abuse which he believed the Central Lancashire League committee effectively covered up. In 1939, Constantine represented West Indies during the season and did not play any further professional league cricket in Lancashire. During the war, Constantine returned to play for Nelson as an amateur.
Style and technique
E. W. SwantonE. W. Swanton
Ernest William Swanton CBE is chiefly known for being a cricket writer and commentator under his initials, E. W. Swanton. He worked as a sports journalist for The Daily Telegraph and as a broadcaster for BBC Radio for 30 years. He was a regular commentator on Test Match Special, easily recognised...
believed that Constantine was the first great West Indian cricketer to make an impression on the British public; "he indeed personified West Indian cricket from the first faltering entry in the Test arena in 1928 until the post-war emergence of the trinity of Worrell, Weekes and Walcott." He went on: "There have been many all-rounders with better records on paper with both bat and ball; but it is hard to think of one who made a more sensational impact, in either department, and above all impossible to imagine his superior as a fielder anywhere." In 1934, journalist Neville Cardus
Neville Cardus
Sir John Frederick Neville Cardus CBE was an English writer and critic, best known for his writing on music and cricket. For many years, he wrote for The Manchester Guardian. He was untrained in music, and his style of criticism was subjective, romantic and personal, in contrast with his critical...
described Constantine as a "genius" and the "most original cricketer of recent years". R. C. Robertson-Glasgow
R. C. Robertson-Glasgow
Raymond Charles 'Crusoe' Robertson-Glasgow was a British cricketer and cricket writer....
called Constantine one of the best all-rounders of his period, and the most exciting cricketer to watch of all his contemporaries. This was partly because his style of cricket meant that he could alter the course of a match in a short space of time. Even so, he was completely professional in his approach and preferred not to take unnecessary risks.
Constantine's batting was based on good eyesight, quick reflexes and natural ability. While batting, he was able to use his wrists to adjust the angle of the bat at the last second to deal with unexpected late movement from the ball. More so than any orthodox coaching, this ability which arose from the uneven pitches on which he learned the game, influenced Constantine's batting. He batted on instinct and according to Manley, "his every stroke owing more to energy than calculation". He was capable of scoring rapidly against any standard of bowler, but rarely batted for long periods because he chose not to defend. His best shots were the cut, pull and hook. C. L. R. James believed that Constantine only found his best form in Test matches once he became an accomplished league cricketer. By setting himself to master the variety of pitch conditions he encountered, and adapting a style of fast-scoring, occasionally unorthodox batting, he became an adaptable and effective batsman who used improvisation where necessary to prevent bowlers getting on top. However, his early supporters had hoped he would become an outstanding batsman; James later wrote: "It was not to be, and what was, was not less."
A fielder who excelled at the position of cover-point, according to Manley, Constantine was "athletic, panther-quick, sure handed and with an arm that could rifle the ball into the wicket-keeper's gloves like a bullet even from the deepest boundary which was not then limited to 75 yards. Many who saw him believe he was one of the best fielders of all time. As a bowler, Constantine had a relatively short run-up to the wickets, but accelerated at the last minute and his bowling action was explosive. Beginning as an outright fast bowler, he adapted his style following his league experience. According to James, he reached his best form as a bowler in 1939 using what he had learned in the leagues. By this time, he varied his pace, spin and the flight of the ball; this style made him effective even on good batting pitches such as that in his final Test match. Although Constantine's Test bowling record was modest, this may to some extent reflect the poor standard of fielding in the West Indies team. In their early days in Test cricket, the West Indian fielders dropped a lot of catches, handicapping the bowling attack.
According to Manley, wherever he played, he brought "style and humour: that aggressiveness that is somehow good-natured and which is the distinctively West Indian quality in all sport. Constantine's extrovert exuberance was, of course, more particularly Trinidadian that generally West Indian. Perhaps it is this last characteristic that gave him that special quality of panache which sets him apart from all other West Indian cricketers."
Nelson
During his time in Nelson, Constantine made a deep impression on the local population. As well as playing cricket, he became involved in the local community. He coached local children, engaged with the team's supporters and visited the hospital. Jeffrey Hill, who wrote a history of Nelson, described him as a "local champion". He was generally popular with fellow players and the other residents of Nelson, spent little and kept out of political discussions. He appreciated that he enjoyed greater freedom than working for a solicitors in a Trinidad dominated by racial issues. Although Nelson suffered from the Depression, Constantine's high earnings were never a source of resentment, partly because of Constantine's bearing and personality and also through what he brought to the town through his status and achievements as a cricketer. For many years after he left, Constantine enjoyed celebrity status in Nelson. Of his time there, he said:" If I had not come ... I could not have been the person I am today ...I am a better citizen for the time I have spent in Nelson." In his obituary, Arlott said: "In his younger days some thought him bouncy or unduly colour conscious; if that were so, Nelson warmed him."Initially, only Constantine and his wife moved to Nelson, leaving their daughter with relations. His first season was difficult; both he and the residents of the town were uncertain of each other. Few black people had been seen in Nelson and the locals were initially curious to the point of intrusiveness. Constantine and his wife were frequently stared at, but matters sometimes became more unpleasant. Although some members of the public wrote welcoming letters, the Constantines also received racist and abusive ones. Constantine quickly established boundaries over what he considered acceptable, permitting and even sharing small jokes over skin colour but protesting strongly at outright racism. After his first season, there were no such recorded incidents. John Arlott wrote: "[Constantine] fought discrimination against his people with a dignity firm but free of acrimony." Constantine later attributed some of the uneasiness during the first year to ignorance, but at the time he was ready to return to Trinidad after one season. His wife persuaded him otherwise, pointing out the benefits from remaining to complete his contract. From 1930, possibly helped by the arrival of his daughter, Constantine found life more comfortable. There was less novelty surrounding the family and people in the town became much friendlier. The family developed friendships and took part in the social life of the town. Although visiting Trinidad frequently in the English winter, Constantine and his family now lived in Nelson permanently.
After each of the first three seasons, the family changed their rented accommodation, eventually settling in a fairly prosperous, middle-class area of Nelson where they lived until 1949. During 1932, they took on C. L. R. James
C. L. R. James
Cyril Lionel Robert James , who sometimes wrote under the pen-name J.R. Johnson, was an Afro-Trinidadian historian, journalist, socialist theorist and essayist. His works are influential in various theoretical, social, and historiographical contexts...
as a lodger. James had come from Trinidad, where he knew Constantine having played cricket against him, to London but ran out of money; Constantine offered him a place to live. James was at the forefront of a growing West Indian nationalist movement, but Constantine had until then consciously stayed out of politics in Nelson. Constantine was frequently invited to give talks at social events; James began to accompany him and increasingly became involved in public speaking. Constantine was more restrained in his views than James but joined the League of Coloured Peoples
League of Coloured Peoples
The League of Coloured People was a British civil rights organization. The league was founded in 1931 in London with the goal of racial equality around the world. Though the league's primary focus was black rights in Britain, it also was involved in other civil-rights issues, such as the...
, an organisation aiming to achieve racial equality for black people in Britain. Through James' influence, Constantine realised that he could use his influence in Britain to create interest in the West Indies and further the cause of racial equality and Trinidadian independence. Constantine also helped James to further his career, paving his way into public speaking and helping to secure him a job writing for The Manchester Guardian
The Guardian
The Guardian, formerly known as The Manchester Guardian , is a British national daily newspaper in the Berliner format...
. Constantine also paid for the publication of James' book on West Indian self-government. In return, James helped Constantine to write his first book, Cricket and I which was published in 1933. Later commentators have identified the book as an important step in West Indian nationalism which encouraged future authors. James later wrote that, at the time, few active cricketers wrote books and "no one in the West Indies that I knew, cricketer or not, was writing books at all; certainly none was being printed abroad." Although the political activities of 1932 badly affected Constantine's form for Nelson, in the longer term they encouraged Constantine to resume his education. The friendship between Constantine and James did not remain as close once James returned to London; they remained in contact but did not always agree politically or morally. But Mason believes that without Constantine's help, James may not have later established himself as a celebrated political writer.
Career in the war
During the war, Constantine continued to play professional league cricket; he appeared for Windmill Cricket Club in the Bradford League until 1941, and later as an amateur in the Liverpool and District League. He also appeared in many wartime charity matches all over England, in addition to more high profile matches at Lord's. As a popular cricketer, he was in demand to play but found the demands strenuous given his age. But the war ended his career in top cricket and signalled a change in his priorities. When the war began, he chose to remain in Britain and continued to live in Nelson. After assisting in Nelson's preparations for war and serving an Air Raid PrecautionsAir Raid Precautions
Air Raid Precautions was an organisation in the United Kingdom set up as an aid in the prelude to the Second World War dedicated to the protection of civilians from the danger of air-raids. It was created in 1924 as a response to the fears about the growing threat from the development of bomber...
equipment officer, he became a billeting officer in Nelson and inspected homes with a view to housing evacuees. He applied for a job with the Ministry of Labour
Ministry of Labour
The Ministry of Labour was a British civil service department established by the New Ministries and Secretaries Act 1916. It was renamed the Employment Department in 1988, and finally abolished in 1995...
and was awaiting his call-up to the armed services when the Ministry of Labour and National Service offered him a job as Welfare Officer, a senior position with the responsibility for the many West Indians who had been recruited to work in factories in the north-west of England for the duration of the war.
Working mainly from Liverpool, Constantine helped the men to find accommodation and training, smooth over difficulties they had settling in and assist them with any problems. He also had to help them adapt to their unfamiliar environment and tackle the severe racism and discrimination which many of them faced. Constantine attempted to work with both sides, working closely with trade unions and attempting to ease the fears and suspicions of white workers. Where employers refused outright to employ West Indians, Constantine used his influence with the Ministry of Labour to increase the number of orders placed at the company so they were forced to employ more workers, of any race, to meet the demands. In most cases, Constantine preferred negotiation to confrontation and this approach was often successful. His familiarity with England and his experience as a West Indian living there assisted him in his role. Also, his status as a famous cricketer and his high profile also benefitted his work, although some black workers felt his ease with white managers meant he was on the employers' side and did not entirely trust him. Constantine's wartime experiences led him to increase his involvement in the League of Coloured Peoples, sometimes referring cases to them he had encountered in his job. Constantine particularly took up the cause of the unwanted children of white women and black overseas servicemen posted to England, who were often abandoned by their parents; plans to create a children's home for them came to nothing, leaving Constantine frustrated at opposition to the scheme.
Constantine remained in his post until the summer of 1946, latterly concerned with the repatriation of the West Indian workers at the end of the war. For his work in the war, he was made a Member of the British Empire (MBE)
Order of the British Empire
The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire is an order of chivalry established on 4 June 1917 by George V of the United Kingdom. The Order comprises five classes in civil and military divisions...
in 1947. During the war, Constantine also began a career in radio, broadcasting to the West Indies at the government's request on the role of West Indians in the war. When these broadcasts were successful, he was asked to speak on BBC
BBC
The British Broadcasting Corporation is a British public service broadcaster. Its headquarters is at Broadcasting House in the City of Westminster, London. It is the largest broadcaster in the world, with about 23,000 staff...
radio about his life in England. His radio performances met with critical acclaim and he was a frequent guest on radio panel shows. He also took part in a film documentary in 1943.
Constantine v Imperial London Hotels
In August 1943, Constantine appeared in a charity cricket match at Lord's and had booked rooms for himself, his wife and daughter at the Imperial Hotel in London for four nights. Upon his arrival on 30 July, he was told that they could only stay for one night because their presence might offend other guests. This was not the first occasion he had been refused accommodation on the grounds of skin colour, and he knew of similar incidents affecting other people. But the Imperial Hotel incident affected him deeply as his family was also involved and because he was due to play cricket for the "Dominions", a team representing the British Empire and Commonwealth. When booking the rooms, he was specifically told on enquiry that his colour would not be an issue. When Arnold Watson, a colleague of Constantine at the Ministry of Labour, arrived and attempted to intervene, he was told by the manageress: "We are not going to have these niggers in our hotel," and that his presence might offend Americans staying at the hotel. Watson replied that not only was Constantine British subject, he worked for the government. But no arguments made any difference and Watson persuaded Constantine to leave and stay at another hotel. The new hotel, although owned by the same company as the Imperial, proved to be welcoming.By September, the matter came to public attention when questions were asked in the House of Commons, by which time Constantine had decided to take legal action. The following June, Constantine v Imperial London Hotels was heard in the High Court. Although there was no law against racial discrimination in Britain at the time, Constantine argued that the hotel had breached its contract with him. Constantine informed the court that the attitude of the hotel changed between his booking and arrival owing to the presence of white American servicemen. The defence argued that they had met their contract by accommodating Constantine in another hotel and that he had left the Imperial voluntarily. The managing director of the hotel denied that racist language had been used. After two days of evidence, the judge found in Constantine's favour. He rejected the defence's arguments and praised the way Constantine had handled the situation and his bearing in court. Although the judge could only award five guineas damages for the hotel's refusal to accommodate Constantine, Constantine was vindicated and emerged as a clear winner. He received great support from the public and the case was widely followed in the press. Further questions were asked in parliament and Constantine received the support of the government. He did not pursue the case any further as he believed he had raised the issue of racism in the public eye.
Although racial discrimination continued in England, this case was the first to challenge such practices in court. Critics regard it as a milestone in British racial equality in demonstrating that black people had legal recourse against some forms of racism and showing that there was no law against discrimination. According to Mason, it "was one of the key milestones along the road to the creation of the Race Relations Act of 1965." In later years, Constantine was remembered as much for this case as for his cricketing achievements.
Legal studies
Throughout his time in Nelson, Constantine continued to consider a legal career: C. L. R. James helped him to study for a short time; later, Constantine worked in a solicitors' office in Nelson through a connection in the cricket team. He decided to pursue a career in law and began in 1944 by enrolling in the Middle TempleMiddle Temple
The Honourable Society of the Middle Temple, commonly known as Middle Temple, is one of the four Inns of Court exclusively entitled to call their members to the English Bar as barristers; the others being the Inner Temple, Gray's Inn and Lincoln's Inn...
, London. As his studies were expensive, he continued for a time as a professional cricketer. He returned to play for Windmill for three seasons from 1946, leading the league bowling averages in the latter two years. He supplemented his income in 1946 by coaching on weekdays at Trinity College, Dublin
Trinity College, Dublin
Trinity College, Dublin , formally known as the College of the Holy and Undivided Trinity of Queen Elizabeth near Dublin, was founded in 1592 by letters patent from Queen Elizabeth I as the "mother of a university", Extracts from Letters Patent of Elizabeth I, 1592: "...we...found and...
. In 1953, he also coached in Ceylon
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka is a country off the southern coast of the Indian subcontinent. Known until 1972 as Ceylon , Sri Lanka is an island surrounded by the Indian Ocean, the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait, and lies in the vicinity of India and the...
. Constantine also extended his work in journalism; he reported on cricket matches for Reuters
Reuters
Reuters is a news agency headquartered in New York City. Until 2008 the Reuters news agency formed part of a British independent company, Reuters Group plc, which was also a provider of financial market data...
during 1946 when his understanding of the game impressed fellow journalists. He wrote several cricket books, probably with the help of a ghostwriter
Ghostwriter
A ghostwriter is a professional writer who is paid to write books, articles, stories, reports, or other texts that are officially credited to another person. Celebrities, executives, and political leaders often hire ghostwriters to draft or edit autobiographies, magazine articles, or other written...
: Cricket in the Sun (1947) covered his career but also discussed the racism he had encountered and suggested ideas for the future of cricket, such as a world cup, which were radical at the time; Cricketers' Carnival (1948), Cricket Crackers and Cricketers' Cricket (both 1949) were more traditional cricket books including coaching tips and opinions. Constantine also established himself as a radio broadcaster. He commentated for the BBC during the West Indies' victorious tour of England in 1950. HIs style won praise from the BBC hierarchy and from fellow journalists and he was soon in demand for other broadcasts, usually to talk about the Commonwealth or West Indies. He enjoyed speaking on the radio and was particularly effective when speaking without a script; audiences particularly appreciated his broadcasts on his early life in Trinidad or his personal experiences.
Around this time, Constantine had several official roles and became involved in racial issues. In 1947, Constantine became chairman of the League of Coloured Peoples and joined its executive committee. However, following the death of Harold Moody
Harold Moody
Harold Arundel Moody was a physician in London who established the League of Coloured Peoples in 1931 with the support of the Quakers.Moody was born in Kingston, Jamaica in 1882, the son of a pharmacist...
, the League's founder and Constantine's predecessor as chairman, the league foundered and closed in 1951. In 1948, he was elected president of the Caribbean Congress of Labour
Caribbean Congress of Labour
The Caribbean Congress of Labour is a regional trade union federation. It represents 500,000 members in 33 affiliated unions across 17 Caribbean nations....
and between 1947 and 1950, he joined the Colonial Office
Colonial Office
Colonial Office is the government agency which serves to oversee and supervise their colony* Colonial Office - The British Government department* Office of Insular Affairs - the American government agency* Reichskolonialamt - the German Colonial Office...
's Colonial Social Welfare Advisory Committee. Also in 1950, he became involved in a controversy over the interracial marriage of Seretse Khama
Seretse Khama
Sir Seretse Khama, KBE was a statesman from Botswana. Born into one of the more powerful of the royal families of what was then the British Protectorate of Bechuanaland, and educated abroad in neighbouring South Africa and in the United Kingdom, he returned home—with a popular but controversial...
, the future president of Botswana. Constantine lobbied the government on Khama's behalf, organised meetings and even approached the United Nations. Little was achieved and Constantine disapproved of the approach of the Labour
Labour Party (UK)
The Labour Party is a centre-left democratic socialist party in the United Kingdom. It surpassed the Liberal Party in general elections during the early 1920s, forming minority governments under Ramsay MacDonald in 1924 and 1929-1931. The party was in a wartime coalition from 1940 to 1945, after...
government and its Prime Minister, Clement Attlee
Clement Attlee
Clement Richard Attlee, 1st Earl Attlee, KG, OM, CH, PC, FRS was a British Labour politician who served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1945 to 1951, and as the Leader of the Labour Party from 1935 to 1955...
. Among other approached to Constantine at this time, he was invited to become a Liberal
Liberal Party (UK)
The Liberal Party was one of the two major political parties of the United Kingdom during the 19th and early 20th centuries. It was a third party of negligible importance throughout the latter half of the 20th Century, before merging with the Social Democratic Party in 1988 to form the present day...
MP and to assist in the organisation of a black Olympic Games.
Broadcasting in particular provided Constantine with the financial security he needed. His legal studies began in earnest in 1946 when he joined the chambers of a barrister in London. Most of his studying was done at home; Constantine neither enjoyed the work nor found it easy but was determined to prove that he could succeed. His wife kept him motivated, restricted visitors to avoid distractions and practically forced him to study, keeping him going several times when he verged on giving up. By 1947, he had passed the Roman Law examination, and the family moved to London in 1949 to make it easier for him to study. Between 1950 and 1954, Constantine passed the required series of examinations, and in later 1954 he was called to the bar
Call to the bar
The Call to the Bar is a legal term of art in most common law jurisdictions where persons must be qualified to be allowed to argue in court on behalf of another party, and are then said to have been "called to the bar" or to have received a "call to the bar"...
by the Middle Temple.
Having turned down an offer to return to the company in 1947 when he was not happy with his proposed role, Constantine agreed to join his old employers, Trinidad Leaseholds, as an assistant legal advisor. He was uncertain about the move, having lived in England for 25 years and he was still concerned about racial barriers in place in his homeland. On balance, though, he believed it was a good time to return to Trinidad, particularly as his daughter was moving there to marry. Before leaving England, he published his fifth book, Colour Bar, in 1954. Written with a ghostwriter over two years, it addressed race relations in Britain and how he had experienced racism. He also discussed world-wide racial oppression and how progress could be made to improve the lives of black people. For the time it was written, according to Peter Mason, it was "an explosive, challenging, hard hitting tome, the more so because it came not from a known black militant but from someone who seemed so charming, so unruffled, so suited to British society." Although not radical to a black audience, it was aimed at white British readers. The British press gave it mixed reviews and criticised him for unfairness in parts of the book; other critics accused him of expressing communist sympathies.
Return to Trinidad
Constantine arrived back in Trinidad in late 1954 at a time when the country was moving closer to independence from Britain and the people were conscious of political issues. He began his new job in January 1955, working on legal issues that affected his company. The relationship between Constantine and the other senior members of staff, who were mainly white, were not particularly close, leaving him feeling isolated. This was one of a number of factors which drew him towards politics. A new political party called the People's National MovementPeople's National Movement
The People's National Movement is the present-day opposition political party in Trinidad and Tobago. Founded in 1955 by Eric Williams, it won the 1956 General Elections and went on to hold power for an unbroken 30 years. After the death of Williams in 1981 George Chambers led the party...
(PNM) was founded around this time and its leader, Eric Williams
Eric Williams
Eric Eustace Williams served as the first Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago. He served from 1956 until his death in 1981. He was also a noted Caribbean historian, and is widely regarded as "The Father of The Nation."...
, wanted to involve Constantine owing to his popular appeal and shared political views. By January 1956, Constantine had been elected as party chairman and a member of its executive; although he had assured Trinidad Leaseholds he would avoid politics, the company agreed he could pursue his role in the new party. Constantine's role involved establishing an infrastructure for the party, for example setting up local groups affiliated to the party, while maintaining his job at Trinidad Leaseholds. Previously, Constantine had been reluctant to become involved in party politics, but he felt the PNM's policies fitted with his views on improving the lives of black people. Encouraged by his wife, Constantine stood for election in the constituency of Tunapuna
Tunapuna
-Town:It is located between St. Augustine, Tacarigua and Trincity. Tunapuna is the largest town between San Juan and Arima. It is an important market and commercial centre, and is the seat of the Tunapuna-Piarco Regional Corporation...
, close to where he grew up. Constantine won a narrow victory based mainly on the votes of the black population; his colleagues believed he was one of very few personalities who could have won the seat for the PNM. Having won, Constantine resigned from Trinidad Leaseholds, and moved to Tunapuna. The PNM won a majority of seats in the election and Constantine became the minister of communications.
As minister, Constantine was responsible for the regeneration of Trinidad's infrastructure, for example building roads and bridges, expanding the supply of water and electricity and the construction of schools. He also had to make improvements to Trinidad's road system to cope with an increasing number of cars and he attempted to modernise the railway system. His role brought him into controversy when he was accused of corruption in late 1958 over a deal to lease a ship to carry passengers and cargo from Port-of-Spain to Scarborough, Tobago
Scarborough, Tobago
Scarborough, Tobago is the largest town in Tobago, one of the two main islands of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. Its population is around 17,000, almost one-third of the population of the island. The town is dominated by Fort King George, an 18th century fortification named after King George...
. Hurt by the accusation, his angry response in the Legislative Council
Legislative Council of Trinidad and Tobago
The Legislative Council of Trinidad and Tobago served as an advisory commission to the Governor in British-ruled Trinidad and Tobago, between 1925 and independence in 1961. The Legislative Council consisted of a mixture of appointed and elected members...
created a perception that he felt himself to be above his colleagues. The speech placed doubts in the mind of the electorate, which may already have questioned his commitment to Trinidad given his long absence abroad. It also suggested to his colleagues that Constantine was not sufficiently hardened to survive parliamentary politics. According to Mason, "In short, the speech was a miscalculation". Constantine became increasingly disillusioned with the bitter political arguments between the political parties and commentators considered him unsuited to the role. Constantine assisted in the development of the West Indies Federation
West Indies Federation
The West Indies Federation, also known as the Federation of the West Indies, was a short-lived Caribbean federation that existed from January 3, 1958, to May 31, 1962. It consisted of several Caribbean colonies of the United Kingdom...
as a step towards the independence of the islands, and then played a role in the negotiations which led to Trinidad's independence in 1962. His familiarity in Britain and his fame helped to smooth negotiations, even if his actual role was insubstantial. Subsequently, he decided not to stand for re-election in 1961 and Williams appointed him as Trinidad and Tobago's first High Commissioner
High Commissioner (Commonwealth)
In the Commonwealth of Nations, a High Commissioner is the senior diplomat in charge of the diplomatic mission of one Commonwealth government to another.-History:...
in London.
Constantine's political career in Trinidad was a mixed experience. Peter Mason writes that Constantine was successful in his role; he was efficiency, preferred action rather than debate and was both respected and popular. Mason concedes he was not a natural political and often sensitive to criticism. In addition, his experiences outside his homeland were distrusted rather than an advantage. Gerald Howat believes Constantine's career was handicapped through his age, his frequent references to his English experience, his disillusionment with politics, his lack of toughness and his rejection of political theorising in favour of pragmatism. Nor was he successful in debate. On the other hand, Howat states that Constantine's popularity attracted support to the PNM and that his ability to work with people led to a series of achievements in his role as minister.
Constantine played a role in the campaign to appoint the West Indies cricket team's first black captain, led by C. L. R. James; part of the eventual success of the campaign came from the perception of the anachronism that black people like Constantine could hold government positions, but not captain a cricket team.
High Commissioner
When Constantine returned to England as High Commissioner in June 1961, his role initially involved promoting Trinidad's interests in Britain such as encouraging investment, but evolved into a more ambassadorial role as an official representative of the Trinidad government. Among the accolades he received at this time, he received the freedomFreedom of the City
Freedom of the City is an honour bestowed by some municipalities in Australia, Canada, Ireland, France, Italy, New Zealand, South Africa, Spain, the United Kingdom, Gibraltar and Rhodesia to esteemed members of its community and to organisations to be honoured, often for service to the community;...
of the town of Nelson and appeared on several popular television programmes which celebrated his life and achievements. In the New Year's Honours list for 1962, he was knighted
Knight Bachelor
The rank of Knight Bachelor is a part of the British honours system. It is the most basic rank of a man who has been knighted by the monarch but not as a member of one of the organised Orders of Chivalry...
to become Sir Learie Constantine. Mason notes that Constantine had now "passed firmly into the consciousness as a British treasure".
His role as High Commissioner ended in controversy. Constantine felt that his high profile required him to speak out on racial issues affecting the growing number of West Indian immigrants to Britain, and he offered quiet support to individuals in a number of cases. He also considered his duty to include representing all West Indians, not just Trinidadians. But in one case in April 1963, he went further; a Bristol bus company refused to employ black staff and Constantine became publicly involved by visiting the city and speaking to the press about the incidents. Constantine's intervention assisted in a speedy resolution and the bus company backed down; according to Mason, the affair was crucial in persuading the government of the need for a Race Relations Act. However, politicians in both Trinidad and Britain felt that a senior diplomat should not have become so closely involved in domestic affairs, particularly as he acted without consulting his government. Consequently, Constantine flew to Trinidad to meet Eric Williams. Although it is not clear what happened, Williams effectively withdrew his support and friendship from Constantine, possibly wanting a lower profile appointment in Britain. According to Constantine, he sought reassurances from Williams which were not forthcoming. In return, Constantine decided not to renew his contract as High Commissioner when it expired in February 1964. Constantine subsequently downplayed the diplomatic effects of his intervention but rarely spoke of what had occurred with Williams.
Howat believes Constantine was successful as High Commissioner in caring for his staff but did not pay enough attention to his job or the administration of the office. Other diplomats respected him, but Howat writes: "Yet the evidence for arguing that he was a successful High Commissioner remains sketchy. In the one area in which he acted positively, he blundered—the Bristol affair. In the language of the game he loved ... his timing was wrong but though he was full of good intentions. To his office he brought certain known qualities which served him well but he added nothing to his stature or reputation during the term in which he held it." Mason believes "there was too much of the welfare officer about him and not enough of the government focused diplomat."
Final years
For the remainder of his life, Constantine lived in London. He returned to legal practice and despite limited work was satisfied to achieve a lifelong ambition. Despite his limited experience, he was elected an Honorary Bencher of the Middle Temple in 1963. Apart from frequent social engagements, he resumed both broadcasting and written journalism. He wrote and broadcast on cricket, race and the Commonwealth and produced two more books: a coaching book in 1964, The Young Cricketers Companion, and The Changing Face of Cricket in 1966 which included his thoughts on modern cricket. For the first time, he worked as a television commentator, although his failing health and talkative style meant he was less successful than on the radio.Constantine was once more involved in the British government at this time. In 1965, he was a founding member of the Sports Council
UK Sport
UK Sport is the UK Government's organisation for directing the development of sport within the home countries.-History:The Sports Council previously had been formed in 1972, and had the motto Sport for All. There was also the Central Council of Physical Recreation. In July 1994 it was decided to...
which aimed to develop sport in Britain. In 1967, he formed part of the three-person Race Relations Board, formed out of the Race Relations Act, to investigate cases of racial discrimination. In this role, he spoke out against the Commonwealth Immigrants Act which led to an offer from the Liberal Party to stand as MP for Nelson, which Constantine declined. Later, he was involved in an unsuccessful attempt to negotiate the release of Abubakar Tafawa Balewa
Abubakar Tafawa Balewa
Alhaji Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, KBE was a Nigerian politician, and the only prime minister of an independent Nigeria. Originally a trained teacher, he became a vocal leader for Northern interest as one of the few educated Nigerians of his time...
, the overthrown Prime Minister of Nigeria. In 1966, Constantine was appointed to the BBC's General Advisory Committee before he became a Governor
Board of Governors of the BBC
The Board of Governors of the BBC was the governing body of the British Broadcasting Corporation. It consisted of twelve people who together regulated the BBC and represented the interests of the public. It existed from 1927 until it was replaced by the BBC Trust on 1 January 2007.The governors...
of the corporation two years later. But his declining health restricted his involvement as a Governor.
In the New Years Honours of 1969, Constantine was awarded a life peerage
Life peer
In the United Kingdom, life peers are appointed members of the Peerage whose titles cannot be inherited. Nowadays life peerages, always of baronial rank, are created under the Life Peerages Act 1958 and entitle the holders to seats in the House of Lords, presuming they meet qualifications such as...
and became the first black man to achieve a place in the House of Lords
House of Lords
The House of Lords is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster....
. He took the title of Baron Constantine of Maraval in Trinidad and Nelson in the County Palatine of Lancaster. His investiture attracted widespread media attention; Constantine stated: "I think it must have been for what I have endeavoured to do to make it possible for people of different colour to know each other better and live well together." He sat as a crossbencher but was well enough to make only one speech in his time in the Lords. Also, in 1967 he was elected by students as Rector of St Andrew's University
University of St Andrews
The University of St Andrews, informally referred to as "St Andrews", is the oldest university in Scotland and the third oldest in the English-speaking world after Oxford and Cambridge. The university is situated in the town of St Andrews, Fife, on the east coast of Scotland. It was founded between...
. Once again, his health restricted him and students believed he did not fulfil his role satisfactorily, to the extent of voting that he step down. He left the post when his term expired in 1970. A side-effect of Constantine's many awards and posts in his last years, he faced criticism that he had become part of the Establishment; Private Eye
Private Eye
Private Eye is a fortnightly British satirical and current affairs magazine, edited by Ian Hislop.Since its first publication in 1961, Private Eye has been a prominent critic and lampooner of public figures and entities that it deemed guilty of any of the sins of incompetence, inefficiency,...
mocked him and the new generation of West Indian immigrants believed he was out of touch with their views. Throughout his life, Constantine preferred to deal with racism through measured diplomacy, trying to ensure that the perpetrator looked unreasonable and foolish. He wrote that such incidents "hurt, of course, but one tries to be philosophical afterwards. Long ago, an old Negro told me: 'Learie, the only thing to do with people with bad manners is to forgive them; any other way hurts more.' He was right." This conciliatory approach brought disapproval from more radical black spokesmen in later life.
Although reluctant to leave England, to which he felt he belonged as much as to Trinidad, his health necessitated plans to return permanently to Trinidad. Before he could do so, he died of a heart attack probably brought about by bronchitis on 1 July 1971. His body was flown to Trinidad where he received a state funeral before he was buried in Arouca
Arouca, Trinidad and Tobago
Arouca is a town in the East-West Corridor of Trinidad and Tobago located east of Port of Spain, along the Eastern Main Road. It is located west of Arima, east of Tunapuna and Tacarigua, south of Lopinot, and north of Piarco. It is governed by the Tunapuna-Piarco Regional Corporation...
. He was posthumously awarded Trinidad's highest honour, the Trinidad Cross. Later in July, a memorial service was held in London in Westminster Abbey.
Personal life
Constantine met his future wife, Norma Agatha Cox, in 1921. Cox had little interest in cricket, and although their relationship developed in the early 1920s, she resented that he gave more time to cricket than he did to her. However, the relationship lasted and Cox began to take more of an interest in his sporting achievements. The pair were married on 25 July 1927; their only child, Norma, was born in April 1928. Throughout their marriage, she motivated him to continue his efforts to further his career and they remained close. Norma died two months after Constantine in 1971.John Arlott describes Constantine as a man of "easy humour and essential patience ... His outlook was that of a compassionate radical and he maintained his high moral standards unswervingly." E. W. Swanton writes: "None could call Lord Constantine a modest man, but gifts of warmth and friendliness as well as a shrewd brain and a ready tongue helped to make him one of the personalities of his time." He did not get along with everyone; he and England cricketer Wally Hammond
Wally Hammond
Walter Reginald "Wally" Hammond was an English Test cricketer who played for Gloucestershire in a career that lasted from 1920 to 1951. Beginning his career as a professional, he later became an amateur and was appointed captain of England...
feuded for nearly ten years over what Constantine perceived as a slight in 1925–26. Subsequently, Constantine continually bowled short when he encountered Hammond on the field until the pair made peace in the Old Trafford Test match of 1933. After this, they pursued a more good-natured rivalry and became quite friendly and Hammond publicly expressed sympathy for the discrimination suffered by Constantine and other black West Indians.
In his earlier years, acquaintances believed Constantine was too conscious of colour. James wrote: "Many doors in England were open to him. That doors were closed to other West Indians seemed more important to him." Michael Manley describes him as an extrovert who displayed great self belief in everything he did. He also notes that "Constantine was too long in England and perhaps too slight in Test-match performance to make the impact on the Caribbean that he did on England. But he enchanted England."