Kepler-11c
Encyclopedia
Kepler-11c is an exoplanet
discovered in the orbit of the sun-like star Kepler-11
by the Kepler spacecraft, a NASA
telescope aiming to discover Earth-like planets
. It is the second planet from its parent star, and is most likely a water planet with a thin hydrogen–helium atmosphere. Kepler-11c orbits Kepler-11 every 10 days, and has an estimated density twice that of pure water. It is estimated to have a mass thirteen times that of Earth's and a radius that is three times greater than that of Earth. Kepler-11c and its five sister planets form the first discovered system with more than three transiting planets. The Kepler-11 system also holds the record of being the most compact and the flattest system discovered. Kepler-11c and the other Kepler-11 planets were announced to the public on February 2, 2011, and was published in Nature
a day later.
, the star around which it orbits. As planets with discoveries that are announced at the same time are sorted by distance, Kepler-11c's "c" comes because it was the second closest planet from its host star at the time of its discovery (with Kepler-11b
being the closest). Kepler-11, the host star, was named for the Kepler satellite, a NASA
telescope that searches for terrestrial planet
s by measuring small fluctuations in the light of stars that occurs when celestial bodies transit, or cross in front of, the star with respect to Earth. Kepler-11 was flagged as home to a potential transit event by the satellite, and was given the designation KOI
-157. After further observations, Kepler-11c's existence was confirmed by the observation of an orbital resonance
effect between Kepler-11b
and Kepler-11c. Along with the other five planets in orbit around Kepler-11, Kepler-11c was announced on February 2, 2011 at a press conference. Its findings were published on February 3 in the journal Nature. The Kepler-11 system is the first known to host more than three transiting planets.
Follow-up observations were conducted by the Hale
and the C. Donald Shane telescope
s in California; the MMT, WIYN, and Tillinghast
telescopes in Arizona; the Keck I telescope in Hawaii; the Hobby-Eberly
and Smith telescopes
in Texas; and the Nordic Optical Telescope
in the Canary Islands.
constellation. With a mass of .95 Msun
, a radius of 1.1 Rsun, a metallicity
of [Fe/H] = 0, and an effective temperature
of 5680 (± 100) K, Kepler-11 is almost identical to the Sun in terms of radius, mass, iron content, and temperature. However, Kepler-11 is much older than the Sun, with an estimated age of 8 (± 2) billion years (the Sun is approximately 4.6 billion years old). Along with Kepler-11c, Kepler-11 is host to the planets Kepler-11b
, Kepler-11d
, Kepler-11e
, Kepler-11f
, and Kepler-11g. The inner five planets' orbits would fit within the orbit of planet Mercury
, while Kepler-11g orbits Kepler-11 at a much further distance in comparison to the inner components.
With an apparent magnitude
of 14.2, Kepler-11 cannot be seen from Earth with the naked eye
.
and a radius or 3.15 RE
, making it over 13.5 times the mass of earth, but approximately 3.15 times its radius. Planet Neptune
, in comparison, has a radius that is approximately 3.9 times that of Earth's radius. With a density of 2.3 grams/cm3, Kepler-11c has a mass over double of that of pure water at 0 °C; it is also denser than all the Solar System's gas giants, but less dense than any of its rocky planets. Its density is closest to the dwarf-planet Pluto
. Due in part to its proximity to its star, the planet's equilibrium temperature is 833 K, over three times hotter than the average temperature of Earth. The planet orbits Kepler-11 every 13.02502 days at a distance of .106 AU
, making it the second closest planet to its star in the system. The Solar System's planet Mercury
, in comparison, orbits every 87.97 days at a distance of .387 AU. The orbit's inclination
of Kepler-11c is 89°, and is thus almost edge-on as seen from Earth.
The Kepler team has said that Kepler-11b
and Kepler-11c are probably composed mostly of water with a thin hydrogen and helium atmosphere on top. In comparison to the outer planets of the system, which probably have large hydrogen and helium atmospheres, Kepler-11c's proximity to its parent star has blown off most of its atmosphere. Kepler-11 and its six-planet system form what NASA considers to be the most compact and flattest planetary system yet discovered. Kepler-11b and Kepler-11c orbit Kepler-11 with a phenomenon called orbital resonance
, a gravitational tugging that keeps their orbit stable at a 5.4 ratio.
Extrasolar planet
An extrasolar planet, or exoplanet, is a planet outside the Solar System. A total of such planets have been identified as of . It is now known that a substantial fraction of stars have planets, including perhaps half of all Sun-like stars...
discovered in the orbit of the sun-like star Kepler-11
Kepler-11
Kepler-11 is a sun-like star slightly larger than the Sun in the constellation Cygnus, located some 2,000 light years from Earth. It is located within the field of vision of the Kepler spacecraft, the satellite that NASA's Kepler Mission uses to detect planets that may be transiting their stars...
by the Kepler spacecraft, a NASA
NASA
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration is the agency of the United States government that is responsible for the nation's civilian space program and for aeronautics and aerospace research...
telescope aiming to discover Earth-like planets
Terrestrial planet
A terrestrial planet, telluric planet or rocky planet is a planet that is composed primarily of silicate rocks or metals. Within the Solar System, the terrestrial planets are the inner planets closest to the Sun...
. It is the second planet from its parent star, and is most likely a water planet with a thin hydrogen–helium atmosphere. Kepler-11c orbits Kepler-11 every 10 days, and has an estimated density twice that of pure water. It is estimated to have a mass thirteen times that of Earth's and a radius that is three times greater than that of Earth. Kepler-11c and its five sister planets form the first discovered system with more than three transiting planets. The Kepler-11 system also holds the record of being the most compact and the flattest system discovered. Kepler-11c and the other Kepler-11 planets were announced to the public on February 2, 2011, and was published in Nature
Nature (journal)
Nature, first published on 4 November 1869, is ranked the world's most cited interdisciplinary scientific journal by the Science Edition of the 2010 Journal Citation Reports...
a day later.
Name and discovery
Kepler-11c's name is divided into two parts: it is named for Kepler-11Kepler-11
Kepler-11 is a sun-like star slightly larger than the Sun in the constellation Cygnus, located some 2,000 light years from Earth. It is located within the field of vision of the Kepler spacecraft, the satellite that NASA's Kepler Mission uses to detect planets that may be transiting their stars...
, the star around which it orbits. As planets with discoveries that are announced at the same time are sorted by distance, Kepler-11c's "c" comes because it was the second closest planet from its host star at the time of its discovery (with Kepler-11b
Kepler-11b
Kepler-11b is an exoplanet discovered in the orbit of the star Kepler-11 by the Kepler spacecraft, a NASA-led mission to discover Earth-like planets. Kepler-11b is four times more massive and twice as large as Earth, but it has a lighter density estimated at a little over half Earth's, and is...
being the closest). Kepler-11, the host star, was named for the Kepler satellite, a NASA
NASA
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration is the agency of the United States government that is responsible for the nation's civilian space program and for aeronautics and aerospace research...
telescope that searches for terrestrial planet
Terrestrial planet
A terrestrial planet, telluric planet or rocky planet is a planet that is composed primarily of silicate rocks or metals. Within the Solar System, the terrestrial planets are the inner planets closest to the Sun...
s by measuring small fluctuations in the light of stars that occurs when celestial bodies transit, or cross in front of, the star with respect to Earth. Kepler-11 was flagged as home to a potential transit event by the satellite, and was given the designation KOI
Kepler Object of Interest
A Kepler Object of Interest is a star observed by the Kepler spacecraft which is suspected of hosting one or more transiting planets. KOIs come from a master list of 150,000 stars which itself is generated from the Kepler Input Catalog . A KOI shows a periodic dimming, indicative of an unseen...
-157. After further observations, Kepler-11c's existence was confirmed by the observation of an orbital resonance
Orbital resonance
In celestial mechanics, an orbital resonance occurs when two orbiting bodies exert a regular, periodic gravitational influence on each other, usually due to their orbital periods being related by a ratio of two small integers. Orbital resonances greatly enhance the mutual gravitational influence of...
effect between Kepler-11b
Kepler-11b
Kepler-11b is an exoplanet discovered in the orbit of the star Kepler-11 by the Kepler spacecraft, a NASA-led mission to discover Earth-like planets. Kepler-11b is four times more massive and twice as large as Earth, but it has a lighter density estimated at a little over half Earth's, and is...
and Kepler-11c. Along with the other five planets in orbit around Kepler-11, Kepler-11c was announced on February 2, 2011 at a press conference. Its findings were published on February 3 in the journal Nature. The Kepler-11 system is the first known to host more than three transiting planets.
Follow-up observations were conducted by the Hale
Hale telescope
The Hale Telescope is a , 3.3 reflecting telescope at the Palomar Observatory in California, named after astronomer George Ellery Hale. With funding from the Rockefeller Foundation, he orchestrated the planning, design, and construction of the observatory, but did not live to see its commissioning...
and the C. Donald Shane telescope
C. Donald Shane telescope
The C. Donald Shane telescope is a reflecting telescope located at the Lick Observatory in California. It was named after astronomer C. Donald Shane in 1978, who led the effort to acquire the necessary funds from the California Legislature, and who then oversaw the telescope's construction...
s in California; the MMT, WIYN, and Tillinghast
Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory
The Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory is an astronomical observatory owned and operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and is their largest field installation outside of their main site in Cambridge, MA...
telescopes in Arizona; the Keck I telescope in Hawaii; the Hobby-Eberly
Hobby-Eberly Telescope
The Hobby-Eberly Telescope is a 9.2-meter aperture telescope located at the McDonald Observatory. It combines a number of features that differentiate it from most telescope designs, resulting in greatly lowered construction costs...
and Smith telescopes
Harlan J. Smith Telescope
The Harlan J. Smith Telescope is a 2.7m telescope located at the McDonald Observatory, in Texas, in the United States. This telescope is one of several research telescopes that are part of the University of Texas at Austin observatory perched atop Mount Locke in the Davis Mountains of west Texas...
in Texas; and the Nordic Optical Telescope
Nordic Optical Telescope
The Nordic Optical Telescope is an astronomical telescope located at Roque de los Muchachos Observatory, La Palma in the Canary Islands. First light came in 1988, with regular observing beginning in 1989. It is funded by Denmark, Sweden, Iceland, Norway and Finland...
in the Canary Islands.
Host star
Kepler-11c's host star, Kepler-11, is a G-type star 2,000 light years away in the CygnusCygnus (constellation)
Cygnus is a northern constellation lying on the plane of the Milky Way. Its name is the Latinized Hellenic word for swan. One of the most recognizable constellations of the northern summer and autumn, it features a prominent asterism known as the Northern Cross...
constellation. With a mass of .95 Msun
Solar mass
The solar mass , , is a standard unit of mass in astronomy, used to indicate the masses of other stars and galaxies...
, a radius of 1.1 Rsun, a metallicity
Metallicity
In astronomy and physical cosmology, the metallicity of an object is the proportion of its matter made up of chemical elements other than hydrogen and helium...
of [Fe/H] = 0, and an effective temperature
Effective temperature
The effective temperature of a body such as a star or planet is the temperature of a black body that would emit the same total amount of electromagnetic radiation...
of 5680 (± 100) K, Kepler-11 is almost identical to the Sun in terms of radius, mass, iron content, and temperature. However, Kepler-11 is much older than the Sun, with an estimated age of 8 (± 2) billion years (the Sun is approximately 4.6 billion years old). Along with Kepler-11c, Kepler-11 is host to the planets Kepler-11b
Kepler-11b
Kepler-11b is an exoplanet discovered in the orbit of the star Kepler-11 by the Kepler spacecraft, a NASA-led mission to discover Earth-like planets. Kepler-11b is four times more massive and twice as large as Earth, but it has a lighter density estimated at a little over half Earth's, and is...
, Kepler-11d
Kepler-11d
Kepler-11d is an exoplanet discovered in the orbit of the sun-like star Kepler-11. It is named for the telescope that discovered it, a NASA spacecraft named Kepler that is designed to detect Earth-like planets by measuring small dips in the brightness of their host stars as the planets cross in front...
, Kepler-11e
Kepler-11e
Kepler-11e is an exoplanet discovered in the orbit of the sunlike star Kepler-11. It is the fourth of six planets around Kepler-11 discovered by NASA's Kepler spacecraft. Kepler-11e was found by using the transit method, in which a the dimming effect that a planet causes as it crosses in front of...
, Kepler-11f
Kepler-11f
Kepler-11f is an exoplanet discovered in the orbit of the sunlike star Kepler-11 by NASA's Kepler spacecraft, which searches for planets that transit their host stars. Kepler-11f is the sixth planet from its star, orbiting one fourth of the distance of the Earth from the Sun every 47 days...
, and Kepler-11g. The inner five planets' orbits would fit within the orbit of planet Mercury
Mercury (planet)
Mercury is the innermost and smallest planet in the Solar System, orbiting the Sun once every 87.969 Earth days. The orbit of Mercury has the highest eccentricity of all the Solar System planets, and it has the smallest axial tilt. It completes three rotations about its axis for every two orbits...
, while Kepler-11g orbits Kepler-11 at a much further distance in comparison to the inner components.
With an apparent magnitude
Apparent magnitude
The apparent magnitude of a celestial body is a measure of its brightness as seen by an observer on Earth, adjusted to the value it would have in the absence of the atmosphere...
of 14.2, Kepler-11 cannot be seen from Earth with the naked eye
Naked eye
The naked eye is a figure of speech referring to human visual perception unaided by a magnifying or light-collecting optical device, such as a telescope or microscope. Vision corrected to normal acuity using corrective lenses is considered "naked"...
.
Characteristics
Kepler-11c has a mass of 13.5 MEEarth mass
Earth mass is the unit of mass equal to that of the Earth. 1 M⊕ = 5.9722 × 1024 kg. Earth mass is often used to describe masses of rocky terrestrial planets....
and a radius or 3.15 RE
Earth radius
Because the Earth is not perfectly spherical, no single value serves as its natural radius. Distances from points on the surface to the center range from 6,353 km to 6,384 km...
, making it over 13.5 times the mass of earth, but approximately 3.15 times its radius. Planet Neptune
Neptune
Neptune is the eighth and farthest planet from the Sun in the Solar System. Named for the Roman god of the sea, it is the fourth-largest planet by diameter and the third largest by mass. Neptune is 17 times the mass of Earth and is slightly more massive than its near-twin Uranus, which is 15 times...
, in comparison, has a radius that is approximately 3.9 times that of Earth's radius. With a density of 2.3 grams/cm3, Kepler-11c has a mass over double of that of pure water at 0 °C; it is also denser than all the Solar System's gas giants, but less dense than any of its rocky planets. Its density is closest to the dwarf-planet Pluto
Pluto
Pluto, formal designation 134340 Pluto, is the second-most-massive known dwarf planet in the Solar System and the tenth-most-massive body observed directly orbiting the Sun...
. Due in part to its proximity to its star, the planet's equilibrium temperature is 833 K, over three times hotter than the average temperature of Earth. The planet orbits Kepler-11 every 13.02502 days at a distance of .106 AU
Astronomical unit
An astronomical unit is a unit of length equal to about or approximately the mean Earth–Sun distance....
, making it the second closest planet to its star in the system. The Solar System's planet Mercury
Mercury (planet)
Mercury is the innermost and smallest planet in the Solar System, orbiting the Sun once every 87.969 Earth days. The orbit of Mercury has the highest eccentricity of all the Solar System planets, and it has the smallest axial tilt. It completes three rotations about its axis for every two orbits...
, in comparison, orbits every 87.97 days at a distance of .387 AU. The orbit's inclination
Inclination
Inclination in general is the angle between a reference plane and another plane or axis of direction.-Orbits:The inclination is one of the six orbital parameters describing the shape and orientation of a celestial orbit...
of Kepler-11c is 89°, and is thus almost edge-on as seen from Earth.
The Kepler team has said that Kepler-11b
Kepler-11b
Kepler-11b is an exoplanet discovered in the orbit of the star Kepler-11 by the Kepler spacecraft, a NASA-led mission to discover Earth-like planets. Kepler-11b is four times more massive and twice as large as Earth, but it has a lighter density estimated at a little over half Earth's, and is...
and Kepler-11c are probably composed mostly of water with a thin hydrogen and helium atmosphere on top. In comparison to the outer planets of the system, which probably have large hydrogen and helium atmospheres, Kepler-11c's proximity to its parent star has blown off most of its atmosphere. Kepler-11 and its six-planet system form what NASA considers to be the most compact and flattest planetary system yet discovered. Kepler-11b and Kepler-11c orbit Kepler-11 with a phenomenon called orbital resonance
Orbital resonance
In celestial mechanics, an orbital resonance occurs when two orbiting bodies exert a regular, periodic gravitational influence on each other, usually due to their orbital periods being related by a ratio of two small integers. Orbital resonances greatly enhance the mutual gravitational influence of...
, a gravitational tugging that keeps their orbit stable at a 5.4 ratio.