Kehilla
Encyclopedia
The Qahal was a theocratic
organisational structure in ancient Israelite society, according to the Masoretic Text
of the Bible
. In later centuries, Qahal was the name of the autonomous governments of Jewish communities in Eastern Europe
.
word qahal, which is a close etymological
relation of the word qoheleth, comes from a root meaning of convoked [group]; its Arabic cognate, qala, means to speak.
Where the masoretic text uses the term qahal, the Septuagint usually uses the Greek
term Ekklesia, which means summoned group (and literally means they who are called out). However, in one particular part of the Priestly Code
the Septuagint instead uses the term synagogen, literally meaning gathering, where the masoretic text uses qahal.
Thus, the usual translation of qahal into English
is congregation or assembly, although asuppoth, atsarah, 'edah, mo'ed, mikhra, and sod, are also usually translated like this.
In particular, the Biblical text consistently distinguishes between 'edah and qahal. One passage especially makes the distinction clear; part of the Priestly Code discusses what to do if the whole Israelite ['edah] commits a sin and the [qahal] is not aware of it.... Scholars conclude that the qahal must be a judicial body composed of representatives of the 'edah; in some biblical passages, 'edah is more accurately translated as swarm.
prohibits certain members of the 'edah from taking part in the qahal of Yahweh
. In particular, it excludes mamzer
s, and men who have been forcibly emasculated; their descendants, up to the tenth generation, were also prohibited by this law code from taking part in the congregation of Yahweh.
The Greek
term spadones is usually used to refer forcibly emasculated men, but it is also used in the Septuagint to denote certain foreign political officials (resembling the meaning of eunuch). This category does not include men who were born without visible testicles (conditions including cryptorchidism
), or without a visible penis (conditions including hermaphroditism). There is dispute, even in traditional Judaism, about whether this prohibited group of men should include those who have become, at some point since their birth, emasculated as the result of a disease
No explanation of the phrase mamzer is given in the masoretic text
, but the Septuagint translates it as son of a prostitute (Greek
:ek pornes). In the Talmud
, it is suggested that the word mamzer derives from mum zer, meaning a strange blemish, and thus suggesting illicit parentage in some sense. There are differing opinions in the Talmud as to what this consists of, but the universally accepted ruling is that it refers to the offspring of adultery
(defined as relations with a married woman) or incest, as defined in Leviticus.
In the Talmud, there is fierce dispute about whether or not the term mamzer included a child who had a Jewish mother, and a father who is either non-Jewish, or a slave (or both); although the Talmud eventually concludes that this is not the case, a number of scholars now suspect that this was actually the original definition of mamzer. Abraham Geiger
, a prominent Jewish scholar and rabbi of the mid 19th century, suggested that the etymological origin of mamzer might be ma'am zar, which means belonging to a foreign people.
The Talmud
interprets the exclusion of certain people from the qahal as a prohibition against ordinary Jews marrying such people. Additionally, the biblical reference to the tenth generation was interpreted, by the classical rabbis, as an idiom
meaning forever; thus the Talmud forbids all the descendants, forever, of these people from being married to ordinary Jews.
began to set up new qahals to administer tax
collection. These had a minimum of 8 members, and in average Jewish communities had a membership of 22-35 Jews. Their executives
were elected by the local Jewish community, and consisted of 4 elders (Hebrew: rashim) with a further 3-5 honourary members (Hebrew: tuvim). There was one qahal for each Jewish community, although smaller qahals were often made subject to larger ones.
These Polish-Lithuanian qahals quickly came to be politically autonomous
bodies, with major regulatory control over Jewish communities in the region; they administered commerce, hygiene, sanitation, charity, Jewish education
, kashrut
, and relations between landlords and their tenants. They provided a number of community facilities, such as a rabbi
., a ritual bath, and an interest-free loan facility for the Jewish community
. Qahals even had sufficient authority that they could arrange for individuals to be expelled from synagogue
s, excommunicating
them.
However, rich and powerful individuals gradually began to dominate qahals, abusing their position for their own benefit. As a result, by the 18th century, many ordinary Jews had begun to clamour for the abolition of the institution. "In 1844 they were officially abolished by the tsarist regime in Ukraine and most of the rest of the empire; they continued to exist only in the Baltic region. Afterwards, Jewish communities were given jurisdiction only over religious and charitable affairs, and occasionally over education."
Theocracy
Theocracy is a form of organization in which the official policy is to be governed by immediate divine guidance or by officials who are regarded as divinely guided, or simply pursuant to the doctrine of a particular religious sect or religion....
organisational structure in ancient Israelite society, according to the Masoretic Text
Masoretic Text
The Masoretic Text is the authoritative Hebrew text of the Jewish Bible and is regarded as Judaism's official version of the Tanakh. While the Masoretic Text defines the books of the Jewish canon, it also defines the precise letter-text of these biblical books, with their vocalization and...
of the Bible
Bible
The Bible refers to any one of the collections of the primary religious texts of Judaism and Christianity. There is no common version of the Bible, as the individual books , their contents and their order vary among denominations...
. In later centuries, Qahal was the name of the autonomous governments of Jewish communities in Eastern Europe
Ashkenazi Jews
Ashkenazi Jews, also known as Ashkenazic Jews or Ashkenazim , are the Jews descended from the medieval Jewish communities along the Rhine in Germany from Alsace in the south to the Rhineland in the north. Ashkenaz is the medieval Hebrew name for this region and thus for Germany...
.
Etymology and meaning
The HebrewHebrew language
Hebrew is a Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Culturally, is it considered by Jews and other religious groups as the language of the Jewish people, though other Jewish languages had originated among diaspora Jews, and the Hebrew language is also used by non-Jewish groups, such...
word qahal, which is a close etymological
Etymology
Etymology is the study of the history of words, their origins, and how their form and meaning have changed over time.For languages with a long written history, etymologists make use of texts in these languages and texts about the languages to gather knowledge about how words were used during...
relation of the word qoheleth, comes from a root meaning of convoked [group]; its Arabic cognate, qala, means to speak.
Where the masoretic text uses the term qahal, the Septuagint usually uses the Greek
Koine Greek
Koine Greek is the universal dialect of the Greek language spoken throughout post-Classical antiquity , developing from the Attic dialect, with admixture of elements especially from Ionic....
term Ekklesia, which means summoned group (and literally means they who are called out). However, in one particular part of the Priestly Code
Priestly Code
The Priestly Code is the name given, by academia, to the body of laws expressed in the Torah which do not form part of the Holiness Code, the Covenant Code, the Ritual Decalogue, or the Ethical Decalogue. The Priestly Code constitutes the majority of Leviticus, as well as some of the laws...
the Septuagint instead uses the term synagogen, literally meaning gathering, where the masoretic text uses qahal.
Thus, the usual translation of qahal into English
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
is congregation or assembly, although asuppoth, atsarah, 'edah, mo'ed, mikhra, and sod, are also usually translated like this.
In particular, the Biblical text consistently distinguishes between 'edah and qahal. One passage especially makes the distinction clear; part of the Priestly Code discusses what to do if the whole Israelite ['edah] commits a sin and the [qahal] is not aware of it.... Scholars conclude that the qahal must be a judicial body composed of representatives of the 'edah; in some biblical passages, 'edah is more accurately translated as swarm.
Biblical exclusions
The Deuteronomic CodeDeuteronomic Code
The Deuteronomic Code is the name given by academics to the law code within the Book of Deuteronomy. It contains "a variety of topics including religious ceremonies and ritual purity, civil and criminal law, and the conduct of war"...
prohibits certain members of the 'edah from taking part in the qahal of Yahweh
Yahweh
Yahweh is the name of God in the Bible, the God of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Jews and Christians.The word Yahweh is a modern scholarly convention for the Hebrew , transcribed into Roman letters as YHWH and known as the Tetragrammaton, for which the original pronunciation is unknown...
. In particular, it excludes mamzer
Mamzer
The Hebrew noun mamzer in the Hebrew Bible and Jewish religious law, is a person born from certain forbidden relationships, or the descendant of such a person. A mamzer is someone who is either born of adultery by a married woman, or born of incest , or someone who has a mamzer as a parent...
s, and men who have been forcibly emasculated; their descendants, up to the tenth generation, were also prohibited by this law code from taking part in the congregation of Yahweh.
The Greek
Koine Greek
Koine Greek is the universal dialect of the Greek language spoken throughout post-Classical antiquity , developing from the Attic dialect, with admixture of elements especially from Ionic....
term spadones is usually used to refer forcibly emasculated men, but it is also used in the Septuagint to denote certain foreign political officials (resembling the meaning of eunuch). This category does not include men who were born without visible testicles (conditions including cryptorchidism
Cryptorchidism
Cryptorchidism is the absence of one or both testes from the scrotum. It is the most common birth defect regarding male genitalia. In unique cases, cryptorchidism can develop later in life, often as late as young adulthood. About 3% of full-term and 30% of premature infant boys are born with at...
), or without a visible penis (conditions including hermaphroditism). There is dispute, even in traditional Judaism, about whether this prohibited group of men should include those who have become, at some point since their birth, emasculated as the result of a disease
No explanation of the phrase mamzer is given in the masoretic text
Masoretic Text
The Masoretic Text is the authoritative Hebrew text of the Jewish Bible and is regarded as Judaism's official version of the Tanakh. While the Masoretic Text defines the books of the Jewish canon, it also defines the precise letter-text of these biblical books, with their vocalization and...
, but the Septuagint translates it as son of a prostitute (Greek
Koine Greek
Koine Greek is the universal dialect of the Greek language spoken throughout post-Classical antiquity , developing from the Attic dialect, with admixture of elements especially from Ionic....
:ek pornes). In the Talmud
Talmud
The Talmud is a central text of mainstream Judaism. It takes the form of a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, philosophy, customs and history....
, it is suggested that the word mamzer derives from mum zer, meaning a strange blemish, and thus suggesting illicit parentage in some sense. There are differing opinions in the Talmud as to what this consists of, but the universally accepted ruling is that it refers to the offspring of adultery
Adultery
Adultery is sexual infidelity to one's spouse, and is a form of extramarital sex. It originally referred only to sex between a woman who was married and a person other than her spouse. Even in cases of separation from one's spouse, an extramarital affair is still considered adultery.Adultery is...
(defined as relations with a married woman) or incest, as defined in Leviticus.
In the Talmud, there is fierce dispute about whether or not the term mamzer included a child who had a Jewish mother, and a father who is either non-Jewish, or a slave (or both); although the Talmud eventually concludes that this is not the case, a number of scholars now suspect that this was actually the original definition of mamzer. Abraham Geiger
Abraham Geiger
Abraham Geiger was a German rabbi and scholar who led the founding of Reform Judaism...
, a prominent Jewish scholar and rabbi of the mid 19th century, suggested that the etymological origin of mamzer might be ma'am zar, which means belonging to a foreign people.
The Talmud
Talmud
The Talmud is a central text of mainstream Judaism. It takes the form of a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, philosophy, customs and history....
interprets the exclusion of certain people from the qahal as a prohibition against ordinary Jews marrying such people. Additionally, the biblical reference to the tenth generation was interpreted, by the classical rabbis, as an idiom
Idiom
Idiom is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is comprehended in regard to a common use of that expression that is separate from the literal meaning or definition of the words of which it is made...
meaning forever; thus the Talmud forbids all the descendants, forever, of these people from being married to ordinary Jews.
In Poland-Lithuania
In the 16th century, Jewish communities in southern Poland-LithuaniaPolish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was a dualistic state of Poland and Lithuania ruled by a common monarch. It was the largest and one of the most populous countries of 16th- and 17th‑century Europe with some and a multi-ethnic population of 11 million at its peak in the early 17th century...
began to set up new qahals to administer tax
Tax
To tax is to impose a financial charge or other levy upon a taxpayer by a state or the functional equivalent of a state such that failure to pay is punishable by law. Taxes are also imposed by many subnational entities...
collection. These had a minimum of 8 members, and in average Jewish communities had a membership of 22-35 Jews. Their executives
Executive (government)
Executive branch of Government is the part of government that has sole authority and responsibility for the daily administration of the state bureaucracy. The division of power into separate branches of government is central to the idea of the separation of powers.In many countries, the term...
were elected by the local Jewish community, and consisted of 4 elders (Hebrew: rashim) with a further 3-5 honourary members (Hebrew: tuvim). There was one qahal for each Jewish community, although smaller qahals were often made subject to larger ones.
These Polish-Lithuanian qahals quickly came to be politically autonomous
Self-governance
Self-governance is an abstract concept that refers to several scales of organization.It may refer to personal conduct or family units but more commonly refers to larger scale activities, i.e., professions, industry bodies, religions and political units , up to and including autonomous regions and...
bodies, with major regulatory control over Jewish communities in the region; they administered commerce, hygiene, sanitation, charity, Jewish education
Jewish education
Jewish education is the transmission of the tenets, principles and religious laws of Judaism. Due to its emphasis on Torah study, many have commented that Judaism is characterised by "lifelong learning" that extends to adults as much as it does to children.-History:The tradition of Jewish...
, kashrut
Kashrut
Kashrut is the set of Jewish dietary laws. Food in accord with halakha is termed kosher in English, from the Ashkenazi pronunciation of the Hebrew term kashér , meaning "fit" Kashrut (also kashruth or kashrus) is the set of Jewish dietary laws. Food in accord with halakha (Jewish law) is termed...
, and relations between landlords and their tenants. They provided a number of community facilities, such as a rabbi
Rabbi
In Judaism, a rabbi is a teacher of Torah. This title derives from the Hebrew word רבי , meaning "My Master" , which is the way a student would address a master of Torah...
., a ritual bath, and an interest-free loan facility for the Jewish community
Gemach
Gemach is a Jewish free-loan fund which subscribes to both the positive Torah commandment of lending money and the Torah prohibition against charging interest on a loan. Unlike bank loans, gemach loans are interest-free, and are often set up with easy repayment terms.Gemachs operate in most Jewish...
. Qahals even had sufficient authority that they could arrange for individuals to be expelled from synagogue
Synagogue
A synagogue is a Jewish house of prayer. This use of the Greek term synagogue originates in the Septuagint where it sometimes translates the Hebrew word for assembly, kahal...
s, excommunicating
Excommunication
Excommunication is a religious censure used to deprive, suspend or limit membership in a religious community. The word means putting [someone] out of communion. In some religions, excommunication includes spiritual condemnation of the member or group...
them.
However, rich and powerful individuals gradually began to dominate qahals, abusing their position for their own benefit. As a result, by the 18th century, many ordinary Jews had begun to clamour for the abolition of the institution. "In 1844 they were officially abolished by the tsarist regime in Ukraine and most of the rest of the empire; they continued to exist only in the Baltic region. Afterwards, Jewish communities were given jurisdiction only over religious and charitable affairs, and occasionally over education."
See also
- Forbidden relationships in JudaismForbidden relationships in JudaismForbidden relationships in Judaism are those intimate relationships which are forbidden by prohibitions in the Torah and also by rabbinical injunctions. Some of these prohibitions - those listed in Leviticus 18, known as - are considered such a serious transgression of Jewish law that one must...
- MamzerMamzerThe Hebrew noun mamzer in the Hebrew Bible and Jewish religious law, is a person born from certain forbidden relationships, or the descendant of such a person. A mamzer is someone who is either born of adultery by a married woman, or born of incest , or someone who has a mamzer as a parent...
- SpadoneSpadoneSpadone may refer to:* in Italian, a longsword* in Latin, a eunuch...
- Mamzer
- SynagogueSynagogueA synagogue is a Jewish house of prayer. This use of the Greek term synagogue originates in the Septuagint where it sometimes translates the Hebrew word for assembly, kahal...
- KenesaKenesaKenesa is the term for a Karaite or Persian synagogue. The word derives from the Aramaic word for "assembly" .-Layout:...
- Jewish ghetto, a neighbourhood where Jews lived together.
- AljamaAljamaAljama is a term of Arabic origin used in old official documents in Spain and Portugal to designate the self-governing communities of Moors and Jews living under Christian rule in the Iberian Peninsula...
, Spanish name for a Jewish (or Muslim) community in Medieval Spain
- Aljama
Further reading
- Seltzer, Robert M. (1980) Jewish People, Jewish Thought: The Jewish Experience in History. New York: MacMillanMacmillan PublishersMacmillan Publishers Ltd, also known as The Macmillan Group, is a privately held international publishing company owned by Georg von Holtzbrinck Publishing Group. It has offices in 41 countries worldwide and operates in more than thirty others.-History:...
. ISBN 0-024-08950-8