Jonathan Turley
Encyclopedia
Jonathan Turley is an American lawyer, legal scholar, writer, commentator, and legal analyst in broadcast and print journalism. He is currently a professor of law at The George Washington University Law School.
in 1983 and his law degree from Northwestern University School of Law
in 1987.
He served as a House leadership page in 1977 and 1978 under the sponsorship of Illinois Democrat Sidney Yates
.
In 2008, he was awarded a Doctorate of Law (Hon.) from John Marshall Law School
in recognition of his career as an advocate of civil liberties and constitutional rights.
Turley currently lives in Washington, D.C.
with his wife Leslie.
, and environmental law
. He runs the Project for Older Prisoners (POPS), the Environmental Law Clinic, and the Environmental Legislation Project. In the classroom, he is known for his self-deprecating humor and for his engaging teaching style, in which he uses entertaining stories drawn from his real-world experiences.
Prior to joining the George Washington University, he was one of the youngest professors to be offered tenure at the Tulane University Law School
.
His articles on legal and policy issues appear regularly in national publications with over a thousand articles in such newspapers as the New York Times, Washington Post, USA Today
, Los Angeles Times
, and Wall Street Journal. He frequently appears in the national media as a commentator on a multitude of subjects ranging from the 2000 Presidential Election Controversy to the Terri Schiavo
case in 2005. He is often a guest on Sunday talk shows with over two-dozen appearances on Meet the Press
, ABC This Week
, Face the Nation
, and Fox News Sunday
. He serves as a contributor on Countdown with Keith Olbermann
which now airs on Current TV
and appears occasionally on Pacifica Radio
's Democracy Now!
.
Since the 1990s, he has worked under contract as the on-air Legal Analyst for NBC News
and CBS News
to cover stories that ranged from the Clinton impeachment to the presidential elections. He is on the Board of Contributors of USA Today.
, environmental law, civil rights, and the legality of torture
—as someone who speaks truth to power. In fact Politico
has referred to Turley as a "liberal law professor and longtime civil libertarian
.
In numerous appearances on Countdown with Keith Olbermann and The Rachel Maddow Show
, he has called for criminal prosecution of Bush administration officials for war crime
s, especially including torture.
Commenting on the Military Commissions Act of 2006, which, among other things, does away with habeas corpus
, Turley says, "It’s something that no one thought—certainly I didn’t think—was possible in the United States. And I am not too sure how we got to this point. But people clearly don’t realize what a fundamental change it is about who we are as a country. What happened today changed us."
He is a critic of special treatment for the church in law, asking why there are laws that "expressly exempt faith-based actions that result in harm"
Turley disagrees with the theory that dealing with bullies is just a part of growing up, saying, "They are no more a natural part of learning than is parental abuse a natural part of growing up." He argues, "While many will chafe at the notion of moving from hall monitors to personal injury lawyer
s, litigation could succeed in forcing schools to take bullying more seriously."
He has written extensively about the justice of the death penalty noting that, "Human error remains a principal cause of botched executions" and opining that "eventually society will be forced to deal directly with a fundamental moral question: Has death itself become the intolerable element of the death penalty?"
He worries that the Supreme Court
is injecting itself into partisan politics. He has frequently expressed the view that recent nominees to the court hold extreme views.
However, Turley has a strong libertarian
streak and sometimes infuriates the left with a contrarian position. For instance, he has said, “It is hard to read the Second Amendment
and not honestly conclude that the Framers intended gun ownership to be an individual right.” In May 2009 the Daily Kos
said that, "Jonathan Turley is an embarrassment!" because Turley had suggested that supreme court nominee Judge Sonia Sotomayor
was not "brilliant" enough for the job. Moreover, Turley testified in favor of the Clinton impeachment.
In another commentary that outraged progressives, Turley defended Judge Henry E. Hudson
's ruling declaring the individual mandate
unconstitutional for violating the Commerce Clause of the Constitution
, saying: "It’s very thoughtful—not a screed. I don’t see any evidence this is motivated by Judge Hudson’s personal beliefs. . . . Anybody who’s dismissing this opinion as a political screed has obviously not read the opinion."
. For example, he said, "the president’s claim of executive authority based on Article II would put our system on a slippery slope." He has argued against national security exceptions to fundamental constitutional right
s.
He is a frequent witness before the House and Senate on constitutional and statutory issues. as well as tort reform legislation.
Turley has testified in Congress against President Bush's warrantless domestic surveillance program
and was lead counsel in a case challenging it. In regard to warrantless wiretaps he noted that, "Judge Anna Diggs Taylor
chastised the government for a flagrant abuse of the Constitution and, in a direct message to the president, observed that there are no hereditary kings in America."
When Congressional Democrats asked the justice department to investigate the CIA's destruction of terrorist interrogation tapes
Turley said, "these are very serious allegations, that raise as many as six identifiable crimes ranging from contempt of Congress, to contempt of Justice, to perjury, to false statements."
In October 2006, in an interview by Keith Olbermann
of MSNBC
, he expressed strong disapproval of the Military Commissions Act of 2006
.
When the U. S. Senate was about to vote on Michael Mukasey for U.S. attorney general, Turley said, "The attorney general nominee's evasive remarks on 'water-boarding' should disqualify him from the job." On the treatment of terrorism suspect Jose Padilla Turley says, "The treatment of Padilla ranks as one of the most serious abuses after 9/11...This is a case that would have shocked the Framers. This is precisely what many of the drafters of the Constitution had in mind when they tried to create a system of checks and balances." This is important because, "Padilla's treatment by the military could happen to others."
Turley, in his capacity as a constitutional scholar, testified in favor of the Clinton impeachment. He was extensively quoted by congressman James Rogan
during the Impeachment of Bill Clinton
and The Week Magazine.
He was ranked among the nation's top 500 lawyers in 2008. Turley was found to be the second most cited law professor in the country as well as being ranked as one of the top ten military lawyers.
In 2008 his blog was ranked as the top law professor blog and legal theory blog by the American Bar Association Journal
's survey of the top 100 blogs.
Turley was ranked as 38th in the top 100 most cited “public intellectuals” in a recent study by Judge Richard Posner.
Education and personal life
Turley received his bachelor's degree from the University of ChicagoUniversity of Chicago
The University of Chicago is a private research university in Chicago, Illinois, USA. It was founded by the American Baptist Education Society with a donation from oil magnate and philanthropist John D. Rockefeller and incorporated in 1890...
in 1983 and his law degree from Northwestern University School of Law
Northwestern University School of Law
The Northwestern University School of Law is a private American law school in Chicago, Illinois. The law school was founded in 1859 as the Union College of Law of the Old University of Chicago. The first law school established in Chicago, it became jointly controlled by Northwestern University in...
in 1987.
He served as a House leadership page in 1977 and 1978 under the sponsorship of Illinois Democrat Sidney Yates
Sidney R. Yates
Sidney Richard Yates was a politician from the state of Illinois.Yates was born in Chicago, Illinois and he graduated from the University of Chicago. He served in the United States Navy during World War II....
.
In 2008, he was awarded a Doctorate of Law (Hon.) from John Marshall Law School
John Marshall Law School (Atlanta)
Atlanta's John Marshall Law School is a private, for-profit law school in Atlanta, Georgia, which was founded in 1933 and is fully accredited by the American Bar Association...
in recognition of his career as an advocate of civil liberties and constitutional rights.
Turley currently lives in Washington, D.C.
Washington, D.C.
Washington, D.C., formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, "the District", or simply D.C., is the capital of the United States. On July 16, 1790, the United States Congress approved the creation of a permanent national capital as permitted by the U.S. Constitution....
with his wife Leslie.
Career
Currently Turley holds the Shapiro Chair for Public Interest Law at The George Washington University Law School where he he teaches torts, criminal procedureCriminal procedure
Criminal procedure refers to the legal process for adjudicating claims that someone has violated criminal law.-Basic rights:Currently, in many countries with a democratic system and the rule of law, criminal procedure puts the burden of proof on the prosecution – that is, it is up to the...
, and environmental law
Environmental law
Environmental law is a complex and interlocking body of treaties, conventions, statutes, regulations, and common law that operates to regulate the interaction of humanity and the natural environment, toward the purpose of reducing the impacts of human activity...
. He runs the Project for Older Prisoners (POPS), the Environmental Law Clinic, and the Environmental Legislation Project. In the classroom, he is known for his self-deprecating humor and for his engaging teaching style, in which he uses entertaining stories drawn from his real-world experiences.
Prior to joining the George Washington University, he was one of the youngest professors to be offered tenure at the Tulane University Law School
Tulane University Law School
Tulane University Law School is the law school of Tulane University. It is located on Tulane's Uptown campus in New Orleans, Louisiana. Established in 1847, it is the 12th oldest law school in the United States....
.
His articles on legal and policy issues appear regularly in national publications with over a thousand articles in such newspapers as the New York Times, Washington Post, USA Today
USA Today
USA Today is a national American daily newspaper published by the Gannett Company. It was founded by Al Neuharth. The newspaper vies with The Wall Street Journal for the position of having the widest circulation of any newspaper in the United States, something it previously held since 2003...
, Los Angeles Times
Los Angeles Times
The Los Angeles Times is a daily newspaper published in Los Angeles, California, since 1881. It was the second-largest metropolitan newspaper in circulation in the United States in 2008 and the fourth most widely distributed newspaper in the country....
, and Wall Street Journal. He frequently appears in the national media as a commentator on a multitude of subjects ranging from the 2000 Presidential Election Controversy to the Terri Schiavo
Terri Schiavo
The Terri Schiavo case was a legal battle in the United States between the legal guardians and the parents of Teresa Marie "Terri" Schiavo that lasted from 1998 to 2005...
case in 2005. He is often a guest on Sunday talk shows with over two-dozen appearances on Meet the Press
Meet the Press
Meet the Press is a weekly American television news/interview program produced by NBC. It is the longest-running television series in American broadcasting history, despite bearing little resemblance to the original format of the program seen in its television debut on November 6, 1947. It has been...
, ABC This Week
This Week (ABC TV series)
This Week is ABC's Sunday morning political affairs program.The Sunday morning talk show has aired on Sunday mornings on ABC since 1981; the program is initially aired at 9:00 AM ET, although many stations air the program later, especially those in other time zones...
, Face the Nation
Face the Nation
Face the Nation with Bob Schieffer is an American Sunday-morning political interview show which premiered on the CBS television network on November 7, 1954. It is one of the longest-running news programs in the history of television...
, and Fox News Sunday
Fox News Sunday
Fox News Sunday with Chris Wallace is a public affairs program on the Fox network, hosted by Chris Wallace and airing on Sunday mornings. The show began on April 28, 1996, which predated the launch of Fox News Channel, and usually talks about items similar to Sunday morning talk shows...
. He serves as a contributor on Countdown with Keith Olbermann
Countdown with Keith Olbermann
Countdown with Keith Olbermann is an hour-long weeknight news and political commentary program that airs on Current TV, where it began airing on June 20, 2011. The program was broadcast on MSNBC from March 31, 2003, to January 21, 2011. On MSNBC, the show presented five selected news stories of...
which now airs on Current TV
Current TV
Current TV, or Current, is a media company led by former U.S. Vice President Al Gore and businessman Joel Hyatt. Comcast owns a ten percent stake of Current's parent company, Current Media LLC....
and appears occasionally on Pacifica Radio
Pacifica Radio
Pacifica Radio is the oldest public radio network in the United States. It is a group of five independently operated, non-commercial, listener-supported radio stations that is known for its progressive/liberal political orientation. It is also a program service supplying over 100 affiliated...
's Democracy Now!
Democracy Now!
Democracy Now! and its staff have received several journalism awards, including the Gracie Award from American Women in Radio & Television; the George Polk Award for its 1998 radio documentary Drilling and Killing: Chevron and Nigeria's Oil Dictatorship, on the Chevron Corporation and the deaths of...
.
Since the 1990s, he has worked under contract as the on-air Legal Analyst for NBC News
NBC News
NBC News is the news division of American television network NBC. It first started broadcasting in February 21, 1940. NBC Nightly News has aired from Studio 3B, located on floors 3 of the NBC Studios is the headquarters of the GE Building forms the centerpiece of 30th Rockefeller Center it is...
and CBS News
CBS News
CBS News is the news division of American television and radio network CBS. The current chairman is Jeff Fager who is also the executive producer of 60 Minutes, while the current president of CBS News is David Rhodes. CBS News' flagship program is the CBS Evening News, hosted by the network's main...
to cover stories that ranged from the Clinton impeachment to the presidential elections. He is on the Board of Contributors of USA Today.
Politics
Turley is frequently regarded as a champion of liberal and progressive causes, especially on issues such as separation of church and stateSeparation of church and state in the United States
The phrase "separation of church and state" , attributed to Thomas Jefferson and others, and since quoted by the Supreme Court of the United States, expresses an understanding of the intent and function of the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States...
, environmental law, civil rights, and the legality of torture
Torture
Torture is the act of inflicting severe pain as a means of punishment, revenge, forcing information or a confession, or simply as an act of cruelty. Throughout history, torture has often been used as a method of political re-education, interrogation, punishment, and coercion...
—as someone who speaks truth to power. In fact Politico
Politico (newspaper)
The Politico is an American political journalism organization based in Arlington, Virginia, that distributes its content via television, the Internet, newspaper, and radio. Its coverage of Washington, D.C., includes the U.S. Congress, lobbying, media and the Presidency...
has referred to Turley as a "liberal law professor and longtime civil libertarian
Civil liberties
Civil liberties are rights and freedoms that provide an individual specific rights such as the freedom from slavery and forced labour, freedom from torture and death, the right to liberty and security, right to a fair trial, the right to defend one's self, the right to own and bear arms, the right...
.
In numerous appearances on Countdown with Keith Olbermann and The Rachel Maddow Show
The Rachel Maddow Show (TV series)
The Rachel Maddow Show is a news and opinion television program that airs weeknights on MSNBC at 9:00 p.m. ET. It is hosted by Rachel Maddow, who gained popularity with her frequent appearances as a liberal pundit on various MSNBC programs. It is based on her former radio show of the same name...
, he has called for criminal prosecution of Bush administration officials for war crime
War crime
War crimes are serious violations of the laws applicable in armed conflict giving rise to individual criminal responsibility...
s, especially including torture.
Commenting on the Military Commissions Act of 2006, which, among other things, does away with habeas corpus
Habeas corpus
is a writ, or legal action, through which a prisoner can be released from unlawful detention. The remedy can be sought by the prisoner or by another person coming to his aid. Habeas corpus originated in the English legal system, but it is now available in many nations...
, Turley says, "It’s something that no one thought—certainly I didn’t think—was possible in the United States. And I am not too sure how we got to this point. But people clearly don’t realize what a fundamental change it is about who we are as a country. What happened today changed us."
He is a critic of special treatment for the church in law, asking why there are laws that "expressly exempt faith-based actions that result in harm"
Turley disagrees with the theory that dealing with bullies is just a part of growing up, saying, "They are no more a natural part of learning than is parental abuse a natural part of growing up." He argues, "While many will chafe at the notion of moving from hall monitors to personal injury lawyer
Personal injury lawyer
A personal injury lawyer is a lawyer who provides legal representation to those who claim to have been injured, physically or psychologically, as a result of the negligence or wrongdoing of another person, company, government agency, or other entity....
s, litigation could succeed in forcing schools to take bullying more seriously."
He has written extensively about the justice of the death penalty noting that, "Human error remains a principal cause of botched executions" and opining that "eventually society will be forced to deal directly with a fundamental moral question: Has death itself become the intolerable element of the death penalty?"
He worries that the Supreme Court
Supreme Court of the United States
The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest court in the United States. It has ultimate appellate jurisdiction over all state and federal courts, and original jurisdiction over a small range of cases...
is injecting itself into partisan politics. He has frequently expressed the view that recent nominees to the court hold extreme views.
However, Turley has a strong libertarian
Libertarianism
Libertarianism, in the strictest sense, is the political philosophy that holds individual liberty as the basic moral principle of society. In the broadest sense, it is any political philosophy which approximates this view...
streak and sometimes infuriates the left with a contrarian position. For instance, he has said, “It is hard to read the Second Amendment
Second Amendment to the United States Constitution
The Second Amendment to the United States Constitution is the part of the United States Bill of Rights that protects the right of the people to keep and bear arms. It was adopted on December 15, 1791, along with the rest of the Bill of Rights.In 2008 and 2010, the Supreme Court issued two Second...
and not honestly conclude that the Framers intended gun ownership to be an individual right.” In May 2009 the Daily Kos
Daily Kos
Daily Kos is an American political blog that publishes news and opinions from a progressive point of view. It functions as a discussion forum and group blog for a variety of netroots activists, whose efforts are primarily directed toward influencing and strengthening the Democratic Party...
said that, "Jonathan Turley is an embarrassment!" because Turley had suggested that supreme court nominee Judge Sonia Sotomayor
Sonia Sotomayor
Sonia Maria Sotomayor is an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, serving since August 2009. Sotomayor is the Court's 111th justice, its first Hispanic justice, and its third female justice....
was not "brilliant" enough for the job. Moreover, Turley testified in favor of the Clinton impeachment.
In another commentary that outraged progressives, Turley defended Judge Henry E. Hudson
Henry E. Hudson
Henry E. Hudson is a United States federal judge on the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia.-Early life and education:...
's ruling declaring the individual mandate
Health insurance mandate
A health insurance mandate is either an employer or individual mandate to obtain private health insurance, instead of a National Health Service or National Health Insurance.-United States:...
unconstitutional for violating the Commerce Clause of the Constitution
Commerce Clause
The Commerce Clause is an enumerated power listed in the United States Constitution . The clause states that the United States Congress shall have power "To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes." Courts and commentators have tended to...
, saying: "It’s very thoughtful—not a screed. I don’t see any evidence this is motivated by Judge Hudson’s personal beliefs. . . . Anybody who’s dismissing this opinion as a political screed has obviously not read the opinion."
Testimony before Congress
The conceptual thread running through many of the issues taken on by Turley is that they involve claims of Executive PrivilegeExecutive privilege
In the United States government, executive privilege is the power claimed by the President of the United States and other members of the executive branch to resist certain subpoenas and other interventions by the legislative and judicial branches of government...
. For example, he said, "the president’s claim of executive authority based on Article II would put our system on a slippery slope." He has argued against national security exceptions to fundamental constitutional right
Constitutional right
An inalienable right is a freedom granted by a Nature or the Creator's endowment by birth , and may not be legally denied by that government.-United States:...
s.
He is a frequent witness before the House and Senate on constitutional and statutory issues. as well as tort reform legislation.
Turley has testified in Congress against President Bush's warrantless domestic surveillance program
NSA warrantless surveillance controversy
The NSA warrantless surveillance controversy concerns surveillance of persons within the United States during the collection of foreign intelligence by the U.S. National Security Agency as part of the war on terror...
and was lead counsel in a case challenging it. In regard to warrantless wiretaps he noted that, "Judge Anna Diggs Taylor
Anna Diggs Taylor
Anna Diggs Taylor is a United States District Judge for the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan. She graduated from Barnard College in 1954 and Yale Law School in 1957, and worked in the Office of Solicitor for the United States Department of Labor...
chastised the government for a flagrant abuse of the Constitution and, in a direct message to the president, observed that there are no hereditary kings in America."
When Congressional Democrats asked the justice department to investigate the CIA's destruction of terrorist interrogation tapes
2005 CIA interrogation tapes destruction
The CIA interrogation tapes destruction occurred on November 9, 2005. The videotapes were made by the United States Central Intelligence Agency during interrogations of Al-Qaeda suspects Abu Zubaydah and Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri in 2002 at a CIA black site prison in Thailand.. 90 tapes were made of...
Turley said, "these are very serious allegations, that raise as many as six identifiable crimes ranging from contempt of Congress, to contempt of Justice, to perjury, to false statements."
In October 2006, in an interview by Keith Olbermann
Keith Olbermann
Keith Theodore Olbermann is an American political commentator and writer. He has been the chief news officer of the Current TV network and the host of Current TV's weeknight political commentary program, Countdown with Keith Olbermann, since June 20, 2011...
of MSNBC
MSNBC
MSNBC is a cable news channel based in the United States available in the US, Germany , South Africa, the Middle East and Canada...
, he expressed strong disapproval of the Military Commissions Act of 2006
Military Commissions Act of 2006
The United States Military Commissions Act of 2006, also known as HR-6166, was an Act of Congress signed by President George W. Bush on October 17, 2006. Drafted in the wake of the Supreme Court's decision on Hamdan v...
.
When the U. S. Senate was about to vote on Michael Mukasey for U.S. attorney general, Turley said, "The attorney general nominee's evasive remarks on 'water-boarding' should disqualify him from the job." On the treatment of terrorism suspect Jose Padilla Turley says, "The treatment of Padilla ranks as one of the most serious abuses after 9/11...This is a case that would have shocked the Framers. This is precisely what many of the drafters of the Constitution had in mind when they tried to create a system of checks and balances." This is important because, "Padilla's treatment by the military could happen to others."
Turley, in his capacity as a constitutional scholar, testified in favor of the Clinton impeachment. He was extensively quoted by congressman James Rogan
James E. Rogan
James Edward Rogan is a judge of the Superior Court of California, a law professor, an author, and a former Member of the United States House of Representatives from California...
during the Impeachment of Bill Clinton
Impeachment of Bill Clinton
Bill Clinton, President of the United States, was impeached by the House of Representatives on charges of perjury and obstruction of justice on December 19, 1998, but acquitted by the Senate on February 12, 1999. Two other impeachment articles, a second perjury charge and a charge of abuse of...
Awards
In 2005, Turley was given the Columnist of the Year award for Single-Issue Advocacy for his columns on civil liberties by the Aspen InstituteAspen Institute
The Aspen Institute is an international nonprofit organization founded in 1950 as the Aspen Institute of Humanistic Studies. The organization is dedicated to "fostering enlightened leadership, the appreciation of timeless ideas and values, and open-minded dialogue on contemporary issues." The...
and The Week Magazine.
He was ranked among the nation's top 500 lawyers in 2008. Turley was found to be the second most cited law professor in the country as well as being ranked as one of the top ten military lawyers.
In 2008 his blog was ranked as the top law professor blog and legal theory blog by the American Bar Association Journal
ABA Journal
The ABA Journal is a monthly legal trade magazine and the flagship publication of the American Bar Association. It claims to be "read by half of the nation's 1 million lawyers every month"...
's survey of the top 100 blogs.
Turley was ranked as 38th in the top 100 most cited “public intellectuals” in a recent study by Judge Richard Posner.
Prominent cases
In addition to maintaining a widely read blog, Professor Turley has served as counsel in some of the most notable cases in the last two decades—representing whistleblowers, military personnel, and a wide range of other clients. Among them:- Larry Hanauer, a House Intelligence Committee staff member falsely accused of leaking classified information to the New York Times.
- David Faulk, a whistleblower who revealed abuses at NSA's Fort GordonFort GordonFort Gordon, formerly known as Camp Gordon, is a United States Army installation established in 1917. It is the current home of the United States Army Signal Corps and Signal Center and was once the home of "The Provost Marshal General School" . The fort is located in Richmond, Jefferson, McDuffie,...
surveillance programs.
- Dr. Eric Foretich, the husband in the famous Elizabeth Morgan custody controversy.
- former Judge Thomas PorteousThomas PorteousGabriel Thomas Porteous, Jr. is a former United States federal judge who served for sixteen years before being impeached and removed from office in December 2010.-Background:...
in his impeachment trial defense.
- Defendants in terrorism cases, including Dr. Ali al-TamimiAli al-TamimiAli Al-Tamimi is a former Fairfax County resident, biologist, and Islamic teacher...
(the alleged head of the Virginia Jihad/Paintball conspiracy).
- Area 51Area 51Area 51 is a military base, and a remote detachment of Edwards Air Force Base. It is located in the southern portion of Nevada in the western United States, 83 miles north-northwest of downtown Las Vegas. Situated at its center, on the southern shore of Groom Lake, is a large military airfield...
workers at a secret air base in Nevada.
- Lead counsel in the litigation over the mass arrests at the World Bank/IMF protests in WashingtonWashington A16, 2000Washington A16, 2000 was a series of protests in Washington, D.C. against the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, that occurred in April 2000. The annual IMF and World Bank meetings were the scene for follow-on protests of the 1999 WTO protests....
.
- Turley was on the Rocky FlatsRocky Flats PlantThe Rocky Flats Plant was a United States nuclear weapons production facility near Denver, Colorado that operated from 1952 to 1992. It was under the control of the United States Atomic Energy Commission until 1977, when it was replaced by the Department of Energy .-1950s:Following World War II,...
grand jury in Colorado.