Intellectualism
Encyclopedia
Intellectualism denotes the use and development of the intellect
, the practice of being an intellectual
, and of holding intellectual pursuits in great regard. Moreover, in philosophy
, “intellectualism” occasionally is synonymous with “rationalism
”, i.e. knowledge derived mostly from reason and reasoning. Socially, “intellectualism” negatively connotes: (i) single-mindedness of purpose (“too much attention to thinking”), and (ii) emotional coldness (the absence of affection and feelings).
’s view, intellectualism allows that “one will do what is right or best just as soon as one truly understands what is right or best”; that virtue
is a purely intellectual matter, since virtue and knowledge
are cerebral relatives that one accumulates and improves with dedication to reason
. So defined, “Socratic intellectualism” became a key doctrine of Stoic
philosophy. The apparent, problematic consequences of this view are defined as “Socratic paradoxes”; an example is the view that there is no weakness of will — that no one knowingly does, or seeks to do, evil (moral wrong); that anyone who does, or seeks to do, moral wrong (evil) does so involuntarily. Another example is the view that virtue is knowledge, and that there are not many virtues, but that all virtues are one.
To date, philosophers dispute that Socrates’s conceptions of knowing truth, and of ethical conduct, can be equated with modern, post–Cartesian
conceptions of knowledge and of rational intellectualism. For example, Michel Foucault
demonstrated, with detailed historical study, that in Antiquity
, knowing the truth is akin to what is contemporarily understood as “spiritual knowledge”. Without exclusively concerning the rational intellect, this form of knowledge is integral to the broader principle of “caring for the self”.
Typically, such care of the self involved very particular ascetic exercises meant to ensure that knowledge of truth was not only memorized, but learned and integrated to the self in transforming oneself into a good
person. To understand truth, therefore, meant “intellectual knowledge” requiring one’s integration to the (universal) truth, and authentically
living it in one’s speech, heart, and conduct. Achieving that difficult task required continual care of the self, but also meant being someone who embodies truth, and so can “speak freely”, via parrhesia
— the Classical
-era rhetorical device denoting: “to speak candidly, and to ask forgiveness for so speaking”, and, by extension, the moral
obligation to speak the truth for the common good
, even at personal risk. This ancient, Socratic moral philosophic perspective contradicts the contemporary understanding of truth and knowledge as rational
undertakings.
precedes and is superior to the faculty of the will
. It usually is contrasted with voluntarism: “According to intellectualism, choices of the will result from that which the intellect recognizes as good; the will, itself, is determined. For voluntarism, by contrast, it is the will which identifies which objects are good, and the will, itself, is indetermined”.
From that perspective and context, the Muslim
polymath Averroes
, the Christian theologian Thomas Aquinas
, and the German theologian Meister Eckhart
, are recognised intellectualists.
Intellect
Intellect is a term used in studies of the human mind, and refers to the ability of the mind to come to correct conclusions about what is true or real, and about how to solve problems...
, the practice of being an intellectual
Intellectual
An intellectual is a person who uses intelligence and critical or analytical reasoning in either a professional or a personal capacity.- Terminology and endeavours :"Intellectual" can denote four types of persons:...
, and of holding intellectual pursuits in great regard. Moreover, in philosophy
Philosophy
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational...
, “intellectualism” occasionally is synonymous with “rationalism
Rationalism
In epistemology and in its modern sense, rationalism is "any view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification" . In more technical terms, it is a method or a theory "in which the criterion of the truth is not sensory but intellectual and deductive"...
”, i.e. knowledge derived mostly from reason and reasoning. Socially, “intellectualism” negatively connotes: (i) single-mindedness of purpose (“too much attention to thinking”), and (ii) emotional coldness (the absence of affection and feelings).
Ancient moral intellectualism
In SocratesSocrates
Socrates was a classical Greek Athenian philosopher. Credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy, he is an enigmatic figure known chiefly through the accounts of later classical writers, especially the writings of his students Plato and Xenophon, and the plays of his contemporary ...
’s view, intellectualism allows that “one will do what is right or best just as soon as one truly understands what is right or best”; that virtue
Virtue
Virtue is moral excellence. A virtue is a positive trait or quality subjectively deemed to be morally excellent and thus is valued as a foundation of principle and good moral being....
is a purely intellectual matter, since virtue and knowledge
Knowledge
Knowledge is a familiarity with someone or something unknown, which can include information, facts, descriptions, or skills acquired through experience or education. It can refer to the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject...
are cerebral relatives that one accumulates and improves with dedication to reason
Reason
Reason is a term that refers to the capacity human beings have to make sense of things, to establish and verify facts, and to change or justify practices, institutions, and beliefs. It is closely associated with such characteristically human activities as philosophy, science, language, ...
. So defined, “Socratic intellectualism” became a key doctrine of Stoic
Stoicism
Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early . The Stoics taught that destructive emotions resulted from errors in judgment, and that a sage, or person of "moral and intellectual perfection," would not suffer such emotions.Stoics were concerned...
philosophy. The apparent, problematic consequences of this view are defined as “Socratic paradoxes”; an example is the view that there is no weakness of will — that no one knowingly does, or seeks to do, evil (moral wrong); that anyone who does, or seeks to do, moral wrong (evil) does so involuntarily. Another example is the view that virtue is knowledge, and that there are not many virtues, but that all virtues are one.
To date, philosophers dispute that Socrates’s conceptions of knowing truth, and of ethical conduct, can be equated with modern, post–Cartesian
Cartesianism
Cartesian means of or relating to the French philosopher and mathematician René Descartes—from his name—Rene Des-Cartes. It may refer to:*Cartesian anxiety*Cartesian circle*Cartesian dualism...
conceptions of knowledge and of rational intellectualism. For example, Michel Foucault
Michel Foucault
Michel Foucault , born Paul-Michel Foucault , was a French philosopher, social theorist and historian of ideas...
demonstrated, with detailed historical study, that in Antiquity
Classical antiquity
Classical antiquity is a broad term for a long period of cultural history centered on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, collectively known as the Greco-Roman world...
, knowing the truth is akin to what is contemporarily understood as “spiritual knowledge”. Without exclusively concerning the rational intellect, this form of knowledge is integral to the broader principle of “caring for the self”.
Typically, such care of the self involved very particular ascetic exercises meant to ensure that knowledge of truth was not only memorized, but learned and integrated to the self in transforming oneself into a good
Value (ethics)
In ethics, value is a property of objects, including physical objects as well as abstract objects , representing their degree of importance....
person. To understand truth, therefore, meant “intellectual knowledge” requiring one’s integration to the (universal) truth, and authentically
Authenticity (philosophy)
Authenticity is a technical term in existentialist philosophy, and is also used in the philosophy of art and psychology. In philosophy, the conscious self is seen as coming to terms with being in a material world and with encountering external forces, pressures and influences which are very...
living it in one’s speech, heart, and conduct. Achieving that difficult task required continual care of the self, but also meant being someone who embodies truth, and so can “speak freely”, via parrhesia
Parrhesia
In rhetoric, parrhesia is a figure of speech described as: to speak candidly or to ask forgiveness for so speaking. The term is borrowed from the Greek παρρησία meaning literally "to speak everything" and by extension "to speak freely," "to speak boldly," or "boldness." It implies not only...
— the Classical
Rhetoric
Rhetoric is the art of discourse, an art that aims to improve the facility of speakers or writers who attempt to inform, persuade, or motivate particular audiences in specific situations. As a subject of formal study and a productive civic practice, rhetoric has played a central role in the Western...
-era rhetorical device denoting: “to speak candidly, and to ask forgiveness for so speaking”, and, by extension, the moral
Morality
Morality is the differentiation among intentions, decisions, and actions between those that are good and bad . A moral code is a system of morality and a moral is any one practice or teaching within a moral code...
obligation to speak the truth for the common good
Value (ethics)
In ethics, value is a property of objects, including physical objects as well as abstract objects , representing their degree of importance....
, even at personal risk. This ancient, Socratic moral philosophic perspective contradicts the contemporary understanding of truth and knowledge as rational
Reason
Reason is a term that refers to the capacity human beings have to make sense of things, to establish and verify facts, and to change or justify practices, institutions, and beliefs. It is closely associated with such characteristically human activities as philosophy, science, language, ...
undertakings.
Medieval metaphysical intellectualism
In mediæval philosophy, intellectualism is a doctrine of divine and human action, wherein the faculty of intellectIntellect
Intellect is a term used in studies of the human mind, and refers to the ability of the mind to come to correct conclusions about what is true or real, and about how to solve problems...
precedes and is superior to the faculty of the will
Will (philosophy)
Will, in philosophical discussions, consonant with a common English usage, refers to a property of the mind, and an attribute of acts intentionally performed. Actions made according to a person's will are called "willing" or "voluntary" and sometimes pejoratively "willful"...
. It usually is contrasted with voluntarism: “According to intellectualism, choices of the will result from that which the intellect recognizes as good; the will, itself, is determined. For voluntarism, by contrast, it is the will which identifies which objects are good, and the will, itself, is indetermined”.
From that perspective and context, the Muslim
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
polymath Averroes
Averroes
' , better known just as Ibn Rushd , and in European literature as Averroes , was a Muslim polymath; a master of Aristotelian philosophy, Islamic philosophy, Islamic theology, Maliki law and jurisprudence, logic, psychology, politics, Arabic music theory, and the sciences of medicine, astronomy,...
, the Christian theologian Thomas Aquinas
Thomas Aquinas
Thomas Aquinas, O.P. , also Thomas of Aquin or Aquino, was an Italian Dominican priest of the Catholic Church, and an immensely influential philosopher and theologian in the tradition of scholasticism, known as Doctor Angelicus, Doctor Communis, or Doctor Universalis...
, and the German theologian Meister Eckhart
Meister Eckhart
Eckhart von Hochheim O.P. , commonly known as Meister Eckhart, was a German theologian, philosopher and mystic, born near Gotha, in the Landgraviate of Thuringia in the Holy Roman Empire. Meister is German for "Master", referring to the academic title Magister in theologia he obtained in Paris...
, are recognised intellectualists.