Hull blitz
Encyclopedia
The Hull Blitz was the Nazi German strategic bombing campaign
targeted on the Northern English
port city of Kingston upon Hull
, almost invariably referred to as Hull, during the Second World War. Air raids began in Hull on 19 June 1940 and continued until 1945; the city spent more than 1,000 hours under alert.
city or town apart from London
during the Second World War, with 86,715 buildings damaged and 95 percent of houses damaged or destroyed. Of a population of approximately 320,000 at the beginning of the war, approximately 152,000 were made homeless as a result of bomb
destruction or damage. Much of the city centre was completely destroyed and heavy damage was inflicted on residential areas, industry, the railways and the docks. Despite the damage and heavy casualties, the port continued to function throughout the war.
Hulls first air-raid warning was at 02:45 on Monday 4 September 1939, as an 'air-raid yellow' all operational crews were called to their posts. The public siren sounded at 03:20 and the all-clear sounded at 04:08. No raid occurred. Hull had a total of 815 air raid warning alerts with more than 1,000 hours under alerts.
The first bomb to drop on Hull was at 23:13 on 19 June 1940. Hull had a total of 72 air raids, 35 of which had fatalities, with a total of 1,185 people killed, despite the evacuation about a fifth were children.
There were four very heavy raids that killed between 97 and 217 people each. The first of these was the 378 bomber raid of 18 March 1941, an aerial bombardment lasting from 21:15 to 04:00 the following morning which killed 97 people. The double raid from 00:35 to 02:41 on 8 May 1941 and from 00:10 to 03:40 on 9 May 1941 shook the populace once again with the two heaviest air-raids of the Hull Blitz. 358 high explosive bombs and 29,115 incendiary bombs killed 420 people. A power station and 80 percent of the telephone system was destroyed. Hull was without gas until six weeks after the raid. The last of these heavy raids was from 01:20 to 03:31 on 18 July 1941 when 146 people where killed, and raids continued to the end of August 1941, during which the rest of the country was practically at peace again. An observer in autumn of 1941 mentioned Hull as 'the only town to have been heavily raided since the German attack on Russia', this was because the Germans saw Hull as a supply port for Russia.
By the end of hostilities, only 5,945 of the 92,660 homes in Hull had escaped bomb damage. 1,472 were totally destroyed, 2,882 were so badly damaged that demolition was necessary, 3,789 needed repairs beyond the scope of first aid, 11,589 were seriously damaged but patched up and 66,983 were slightly damaged. Some of the 86,715 were struck more than once, in some instances twice and thrice, so that altogether 146,915 individual damages were sustained with 152,000 people rendered temporarily homeless. There were 4,910 fires in the Hull Blitz with 27 churches and 14 schools destroyed. Of the 41,376 air raid shelters in Hull, 250 domestic shelters and 120 communal shelters were destroyed, from which more than 800 people were rescued alive.
The city was an obvious target for Luftwaffe
bombing because of its importance as a port and industrial centre. Being on the east coast, at the confluence of two rivers and with readily identifiable docks in the city centre, it was also a relatively easy target. As a result it suffered heavy bombing from May 1941 to July 1943, and sporadic attacks thereafter until the end of the war. It endured the first daylight raid of the war and the last piloted air raid
. Almost 1,200 people were killed and 3,000 injured in air raids.
Contemporary radio and newspaper reports did not identify Hull by name, but referred to it as a "North-East" town or "northern coastal town" to avoid giving tactical information of damage to the enemy. Consequently, it is only in more recent years that Hull has been recognised as one of the most severely bombed places in Britain. Hull often took bombing meant for more inland places, or from German aircraft fleeing down the Humber to the open sea after failing to find Sheffield
, Leeds
or other northern towns, the victims of pilots who needed to dump their bombs. The difference between Royal Air Force
crews returning from bombing raids over Germany, and German crews returning to their bases, is that pilots of the RAF had strictly observed dump zones in the North Sea
and English Channel
, where pilots could unload unused bombs with minimum risk.
Most of the city centre was rebuilt in the years following the war, but it is only recently that nearly the last of the "temporary" car parks that occupied the spaces of destroyed buildings have been redeveloped. One such car park remains on Albion Street/Bond Street close to the old, now derelict, Edwin Davis store, damaged in an air raid of 1941. This car park and surrounding area is now earmarked for redevelopment as Albion Square. The initial phase of this is the construction of the Wilberforce Health Centre where work started in January 2010.
First and Last
Saltend, East Yorkshire (just outside of the Hull city boundary) suffered the very first daylight raid on mainland Britain. It happened between 16:40 and 17:00 on 1 July 1940 when a German aircraft dropped its bombs on the oil terminal at Salt End
during a ‘nuisance raid’ in which the aircraft unsuccessfully attacked several barrage balloons. Shrapnel from the bomb punctured a 2,500 tons holding tank and the leaking petrol caught fire and threatened to cause adjacent tanks to explode. The courageous effort of depot staff and fire brigades prevented a major disaster. Two firemen, Jack Owen and Clifford Turner, and three Salt End workers, George Archibald Howe, George Samuel Sewell
and William Sigsworth, were awarded the George Medal for their bravery.
The final German air-raid of World War II also fell on Hull. It occurred on Saturday 17 March 1945 and resulted in the death of 13 people while 22 others were seriously injured. The last V2 rocket fell on Kent on Tuesday 27 March with the final V1 flying bomb falling on Datchworth, in Hertfordshire, on 29 March.
This is an interactive version of the above map also showing the RAF stations nearby.
Five raids started before the air raid siren, on 19/06/1940, 22/10/1940, 18/08/1941, 20/12/1942 & 03/01/1943
Two raids continued after the all clear siren, on 10/09/1940 & 02/06/1941
Three raids had no warning, on 17/12/1940, 24/12/1944 & 04/03/1945
For further information, see Websites below
visited Hull to see the damage. A newsreel
film of the visit was shown in local cinemas.
A North-East Coast Town: Thomas Geraghty
Air War over East Yorkshire in World War II: Paul Bright
Strategic bombing during World War II
Strategic bombing during World War II is a term which refers to all aerial bombardment of a strategic nature between 1939 and 1945 involving any nations engaged in World War II...
targeted on the Northern English
Northern England
Northern England, also known as the North of England, the North or the North Country, is a cultural region of England. It is not an official government region, but rather an informal amalgamation of counties. The southern extent of the region is roughly the River Trent, while the North is bordered...
port city of Kingston upon Hull
Kingston upon Hull
Kingston upon Hull , usually referred to as Hull, is a city and unitary authority area in the ceremonial county of the East Riding of Yorkshire, England. It stands on the River Hull at its junction with the Humber estuary, 25 miles inland from the North Sea. Hull has a resident population of...
, almost invariably referred to as Hull, during the Second World War. Air raids began in Hull on 19 June 1940 and continued until 1945; the city spent more than 1,000 hours under alert.
History
Hull was the most severely bombed BritishUnited Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
city or town apart from London
The Blitz
The Blitz was the sustained strategic bombing of Britain by Nazi Germany between 7 September 1940 and 10 May 1941, during the Second World War. The city of London was bombed by the Luftwaffe for 76 consecutive nights and many towns and cities across the country followed...
during the Second World War, with 86,715 buildings damaged and 95 percent of houses damaged or destroyed. Of a population of approximately 320,000 at the beginning of the war, approximately 152,000 were made homeless as a result of bomb
Bomb
A bomb is any of a range of explosive weapons that only rely on the exothermic reaction of an explosive material to provide an extremely sudden and violent release of energy...
destruction or damage. Much of the city centre was completely destroyed and heavy damage was inflicted on residential areas, industry, the railways and the docks. Despite the damage and heavy casualties, the port continued to function throughout the war.
Hulls first air-raid warning was at 02:45 on Monday 4 September 1939, as an 'air-raid yellow' all operational crews were called to their posts. The public siren sounded at 03:20 and the all-clear sounded at 04:08. No raid occurred. Hull had a total of 815 air raid warning alerts with more than 1,000 hours under alerts.
The first bomb to drop on Hull was at 23:13 on 19 June 1940. Hull had a total of 72 air raids, 35 of which had fatalities, with a total of 1,185 people killed, despite the evacuation about a fifth were children.
There were four very heavy raids that killed between 97 and 217 people each. The first of these was the 378 bomber raid of 18 March 1941, an aerial bombardment lasting from 21:15 to 04:00 the following morning which killed 97 people. The double raid from 00:35 to 02:41 on 8 May 1941 and from 00:10 to 03:40 on 9 May 1941 shook the populace once again with the two heaviest air-raids of the Hull Blitz. 358 high explosive bombs and 29,115 incendiary bombs killed 420 people. A power station and 80 percent of the telephone system was destroyed. Hull was without gas until six weeks after the raid. The last of these heavy raids was from 01:20 to 03:31 on 18 July 1941 when 146 people where killed, and raids continued to the end of August 1941, during which the rest of the country was practically at peace again. An observer in autumn of 1941 mentioned Hull as 'the only town to have been heavily raided since the German attack on Russia', this was because the Germans saw Hull as a supply port for Russia.
By the end of hostilities, only 5,945 of the 92,660 homes in Hull had escaped bomb damage. 1,472 were totally destroyed, 2,882 were so badly damaged that demolition was necessary, 3,789 needed repairs beyond the scope of first aid, 11,589 were seriously damaged but patched up and 66,983 were slightly damaged. Some of the 86,715 were struck more than once, in some instances twice and thrice, so that altogether 146,915 individual damages were sustained with 152,000 people rendered temporarily homeless. There were 4,910 fires in the Hull Blitz with 27 churches and 14 schools destroyed. Of the 41,376 air raid shelters in Hull, 250 domestic shelters and 120 communal shelters were destroyed, from which more than 800 people were rescued alive.
The city was an obvious target for Luftwaffe
Luftwaffe
Luftwaffe is a generic German term for an air force. It is also the official name for two of the four historic German air forces, the Wehrmacht air arm founded in 1935 and disbanded in 1946; and the current Bundeswehr air arm founded in 1956....
bombing because of its importance as a port and industrial centre. Being on the east coast, at the confluence of two rivers and with readily identifiable docks in the city centre, it was also a relatively easy target. As a result it suffered heavy bombing from May 1941 to July 1943, and sporadic attacks thereafter until the end of the war. It endured the first daylight raid of the war and the last piloted air raid
Strategic bombing
Strategic bombing is a military strategy used in a total war with the goal of defeating an enemy nation-state by destroying its economic ability and public will to wage war rather than destroying its land or naval forces...
. Almost 1,200 people were killed and 3,000 injured in air raids.
Contemporary radio and newspaper reports did not identify Hull by name, but referred to it as a "North-East" town or "northern coastal town" to avoid giving tactical information of damage to the enemy. Consequently, it is only in more recent years that Hull has been recognised as one of the most severely bombed places in Britain. Hull often took bombing meant for more inland places, or from German aircraft fleeing down the Humber to the open sea after failing to find Sheffield
Sheffield
Sheffield is a city and metropolitan borough of South Yorkshire, England. Its name derives from the River Sheaf, which runs through the city. Historically a part of the West Riding of Yorkshire, and with some of its southern suburbs annexed from Derbyshire, the city has grown from its largely...
, Leeds
Leeds
Leeds is a city and metropolitan borough in West Yorkshire, England. In 2001 Leeds' main urban subdivision had a population of 443,247, while the entire city has a population of 798,800 , making it the 30th-most populous city in the European Union.Leeds is the cultural, financial and commercial...
or other northern towns, the victims of pilots who needed to dump their bombs. The difference between Royal Air Force
Royal Air Force
The Royal Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Formed on 1 April 1918, it is the oldest independent air force in the world...
crews returning from bombing raids over Germany, and German crews returning to their bases, is that pilots of the RAF had strictly observed dump zones in the North Sea
North Sea
In the southwest, beyond the Straits of Dover, the North Sea becomes the English Channel connecting to the Atlantic Ocean. In the east, it connects to the Baltic Sea via the Skagerrak and Kattegat, narrow straits that separate Denmark from Norway and Sweden respectively...
and English Channel
English Channel
The English Channel , often referred to simply as the Channel, is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that separates southern England from northern France, and joins the North Sea to the Atlantic. It is about long and varies in width from at its widest to in the Strait of Dover...
, where pilots could unload unused bombs with minimum risk.
Most of the city centre was rebuilt in the years following the war, but it is only recently that nearly the last of the "temporary" car parks that occupied the spaces of destroyed buildings have been redeveloped. One such car park remains on Albion Street/Bond Street close to the old, now derelict, Edwin Davis store, damaged in an air raid of 1941. This car park and surrounding area is now earmarked for redevelopment as Albion Square. The initial phase of this is the construction of the Wilberforce Health Centre where work started in January 2010.
First and Last
Saltend, East Yorkshire (just outside of the Hull city boundary) suffered the very first daylight raid on mainland Britain. It happened between 16:40 and 17:00 on 1 July 1940 when a German aircraft dropped its bombs on the oil terminal at Salt End
Salt End
Salt End or Saltend is a hamlet in the East Riding of Yorkshire, England, in an area known as Holderness. It is situated on the north bank of the Humber just outside the Hull eastern boundary on the A1033 road....
during a ‘nuisance raid’ in which the aircraft unsuccessfully attacked several barrage balloons. Shrapnel from the bomb punctured a 2,500 tons holding tank and the leaking petrol caught fire and threatened to cause adjacent tanks to explode. The courageous effort of depot staff and fire brigades prevented a major disaster. Two firemen, Jack Owen and Clifford Turner, and three Salt End workers, George Archibald Howe, George Samuel Sewell
George Samuel Sewell
George Samuel Sewell GM and bar was one of the first recipients of the George Medal and was the first civilian to be awarded a bar to the GM.-Early life:...
and William Sigsworth, were awarded the George Medal for their bravery.
The final German air-raid of World War II also fell on Hull. It occurred on Saturday 17 March 1945 and resulted in the death of 13 people while 22 others were seriously injured. The last V2 rocket fell on Kent on Tuesday 27 March with the final V1 flying bomb falling on Datchworth, in Hertfordshire, on 29 March.
Hull bombing map
This is a street plan of Hull c. 1945 plotting the position of many bombs dropped by enemy action during the Blitz.This is an interactive version of the above map also showing the RAF stations nearby.
Schedule of Air Raids
| Raid Starts | Raid Ends | Dead |
|---|---|---|
| 23.13 – 19/06/1940 | 04.02 | None |
| 00.10 – 26/06/1940 | 03.19 | None |
| 00.05 – 30/07/1940 | 00.53 | None |
| 02.31 – 25/08/1940 | 04.57 | 7 |
| 20.59 – 25/08/1940 | 00.20 | None |
| 20.46 – 27/08/1940 | 03.29 | None |
| 01.50 – 30/08/1940 | 03.01 | None |
| 00.09 – 03/09/1940 | 01.50 | None |
| 20.55 – 04/09/1940 | 00.25 | None |
| 05.10 – 06/09/1940 | 05.55 | None |
| 22.06 – 10/09/1940 | 23.30 | None |
| 03.51 – 24/09/1940 | 05.43 | None |
| 19.45 – 13/10/1940 | 21.27 | 2 |
| 01.40 – 22/10/1940 | 02.58 | 2 |
| 06.15 – 01/11/1940 | 07.46 | 1 |
| 18.56 – 07/11/1940 | 20.42 | None |
| 17.48 – 08/11/1940 | 20.40 | None |
| 17.39 – 11/11/1940 | 18.09 | None |
| 04.43 – 12/12/1940 | 06.33 | None |
| 02.55 – 17/12/1940 | 02.55 | None |
| 18.50 – 04/02/1941 | 02.27 | 4 |
| 17.28 – 11/02/1941 | 17.50 | None |
| 19.00 – 14/02/1941 | 02.10 | None |
| 01.36 – 16/02/1941 | 06.58 | None |
| 19.30 – 22/02/1941 | 22.38 | 5 |
| 19.14 – 23/02/1941 | 01.03 | 15 |
| 19.49 – 25/02/1941 | 00.01 | None |
| 19.45 – 01/03/1941 | 23.50 | 5 |
| 20.56 – 13/03/1941 | 04.26 | 40 |
| 20.15 – 14/03/1941 | 03.10 | 20 |
| 20.11 – 18/03/1941 | 04.48 | 97 |
| 20.22 – 31/03/1941 | 00.51 | 50 |
| 20.52 – 03/04/1941 | 01.00 | 1 |
| 21.02 – 07/04/1941 | 04.07 | None |
| 23.07 – 09/04/1941 | 05.06 | None |
| 21.28 – 15/04/1941 | 04.59 | 57 |
| 21.29 – 23/04/1941 | 23.34 | None |
| 21.25 – 25/04/1941 | 23.49 | 8 |
| 21.55 – 26/04/1941 | 02.55 | None |
| 23.10 – 03/05/1941 | 04.00 | None |
| 23.04 – 05/05/1941 | 05.03 | None |
| 23.16 – 07/05/1941 | 05.08 | 203 |
| 00.05 – 09/05/1941 | 05.55 | 217 |
| 23.40 – 09/05/1941 | 05.55 | None |
| 00.20 – 12/05/1941 | 03.45 | 4 |
| 00.12 – 29/05/1941 | 04.50 | None |
| 22.30 – 02/06/1941 | 00.01 | 28 |
| 00.18 – 23/06/1941 | 02.52 | None |
| 01.27 – 29/06/1941 | 03.33 | 1 |
| 00.12 – 10/07/1941 | 02.53 | None |
| 00.53 – 11/07/1941 | 03.05 | 22 |
| 00.55 – 15/07/1941 | 03.19 | 25 |
| 01.18 – 18/07/1941 | 04.07 | 146 |
| 00.09 – 23/07/1941 | 03.25 | 2 |
| 02.05 – 18/08/1941 | 03.50 | 21 |
| 22.07 – 31/08/1941 | 02.32 | 45 |
| 01.21 – 21/09/1941 | 03.52 | None |
| 23.02 – 12/10/1941 | 02.58 | None |
| 21.23 – 07/11/1941 | 00.09 | None |
| 23.31 – 13/04/1942 | 01.32 | 7 |
| 03.20 – 01/05/1942 | 04.40 | 8 |
| 23.39 – 19/05/1942 | 01.16 | 49 |
| 02.15 – 01/08/1942 | 03.25 | 24 |
| 21.10 – 24/10/1942 | 22.48 | 2 |
| 19.25 – 20/12/1942 | 20.15 | 3 |
| 20.30 – 03/01/1943 | 21.32 | None |
| 20.08 – 15/01/1943 | 21.33 | None |
| 02.35 – 24/06/1943 | 03.31 | 24 |
| 01.22 – 14/07/1943 | 02.13 | 27 |
| 05.45 – 24/12/1944 | 05.45 | None |
| 00.30 – 04/03/1945 | 02.40 | None |
| 21.36 – 17/03/1945 | 22.30 | 13 |
Five raids started before the air raid siren, on 19/06/1940, 22/10/1940, 18/08/1941, 20/12/1942 & 03/01/1943
Two raids continued after the all clear siren, on 10/09/1940 & 02/06/1941
Three raids had no warning, on 17/12/1940, 24/12/1944 & 04/03/1945
For further information, see Websites below
- Weights/types of bombs, and location of damage
- Diary of Events
- Military and Civilian War Dead
- Civilian War Dead
- National War Dead
V1 raid
The only V1 to hit Hull was at 05.45 on Sunday, 24 December 1944. A special unit of Heinkel He 111 H-22 was assembled in June 1944 at an airfield in Northern Germany. It was formed to carry V1s or Buzz Bombs as they were called, thus adding 400 miles to their 150 mile range, then being able to bomb northern industrial targets without having to risk precious manned aircraft over land. The unit was operational from July 1944 to January 1945 & launched 1,176 V1s during this period with a failure rate of 40 percent. On this Christmas Eve, between 05:00 and 06:00, forty-five Heinkels of the special unit called Rumpelkammer launched its attack from some 40 miles off the east coast between Skegness and Mablethorpe. Thirty-one V1s crossed the coast targeted at Manchester, but most went astray, three landing in East Yorkshire. They include one that fell in a field just outside of Hull in Willerby west of the Springhead Waterworks at 05.45, damage was done to property in Hull on Willerby Road, Springhead Avenue & Mayland Avenue. The only damage being to windows and roofs, from blast. The Springhead pumping station was also damaged. The event was an untimely one from the point of view of the householders who had to patch up their property in time for Christmas but help was on hand as the Home Guard helped with clearing up and workmen did first aid repairs and canteen workers provided hot drinks. It took more than six months to repair the damage caused by the Buzz Bomb. Another V1 landed at Barmby Moor near RAF Pocklington at 05:50, damaging a Halifax Bomber, this must have been the one seen passing over Withernsea. And another V1 landed at South Cliffe west of Hull at 06:00.Royal visit
In 1941 King George VI and Queen ElizabethElizabeth Bowes-Lyon
Elizabeth Angela Marguerite Bowes-Lyon was the queen consort of King George VI from 1936 until her husband's death in 1952, after which she was known as Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, to avoid confusion with her daughter, Queen Elizabeth II...
visited Hull to see the damage. A newsreel
Newsreel
A newsreel was a form of short documentary film prevalent in the first half of the 20th century, regularly released in a public presentation place and containing filmed news stories and items of topical interest. It was a source of news, current affairs and entertainment for millions of moviegoers...
film of the visit was shown in local cinemas.
Albion Street Municipal Museum
The Albion Street Municipal Museum was destroyed by an incendiary bomb in the early hours of 24 June 1943. The Museum collapsed despite efforts of the cities fire wardens. While some of the collection was salvaged thousands of items collected over a century were destroyed, but it is believed some of the collection remains buried in the building's basement. The Phoenix Project was launched in early 1989 tasked with conducting an Archaeological excavation of the site to extract the buried collection.East Yorkshire
The Blitz on Britain did not just effect the cities but also the surrounding countryside, East Yorkshire was especially effected. 121 people were killed, 82 civilians and 39 military deaths. The Luftwaffe targeted coastal towns such as Bridlington, Hornsea and Withernsea killing a total of 44 people, they also targeted RAF airfields such as RAF Driffield, RAF Catfoss and RAF Leconfield including an attack on RAF Driffield on the 15th August 1940 that killed 15 people. Other attacks on East Yorkshire were on the outskirts of Hull either deliberately such as the first daylight raid on British soil at the Saltend oil terminal and the attack on the Blackburn Aircraft factory at Brough, or in error due to bad navigation, or due to the Hull Docks decoy. These attacks killed 22 people in Hedon, Bilton and Preston. Other bombing activity was caused by the Luftwaffe dumping bombs after abandoning raids not just on Hull but also on Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds and other Northern targets. Death and destruction inflicted by the enemy also included enemy sea mines exploding as they hit the coast, enemy aircraft shooting down allied aircraft over East Yorkshire and even a V1 raid.Books and Websites
The Blitz on Hull: Philip GraystoneA North-East Coast Town: Thomas Geraghty
Air War over East Yorkshire in World War II: Paul Bright
See also
- German bombing of Warsaw (1939)Siege of Warsaw (1939)The 1939 Battle of Warsaw was fought between the Polish Warsaw Army garrisoned and entrenched in the capital of Poland and the German Army...
- German bombing of RotterdamRotterdam BlitzThe Rotterdam Blitz refers to the aerial bombardment of Rotterdam by the German Air Force on 14 May 1940, during the German invasion of the Netherlands in World War II. The objective was to support the German troops fighting in the city, break Dutch resistance and force the Dutch to surrender...
- German bombing of CoventryCoventry BlitzThe Coventry blitz was a series of bombing raids that took place in the English city of Coventry. The city was bombed many times during the Second World War by the German Air Force...
- Bombing of Dresden in World War IIBombing of Dresden in World War IIThe Bombing of Dresden was a military bombing by the British Royal Air Force and the United States Army Air Force and as part of the Allied forces between 13 February and 15 February 1945 in the Second World War...
- Strategic bombingStrategic bombingStrategic bombing is a military strategy used in a total war with the goal of defeating an enemy nation-state by destroying its economic ability and public will to wage war rather than destroying its land or naval forces...
- Carpet bombingCarpet bombingCarpet bombing is a large aerial bombing done in a progressive manner to inflict damage in every part of a selected area of land. The phrase invokes the image of explosions completely covering an area, in the same way that a carpet covers a floor. Carpet bombing is usually achieved by dropping many...
- Terror bombing
- Laws of warLaws of warThe law of war is a body of law concerning acceptable justifications to engage in war and the limits to acceptable wartime conduct...
- Total warTotal warTotal war is a war in which a belligerent engages in the complete mobilization of fully available resources and population.In the mid-19th century, "total war" was identified by scholars as a separate class of warfare...
- Closed cinemas in Kingston upon HullClosed cinemas in Kingston upon HullBritish History Online has published a comprehensive listing of the first 'cinemas' in Hull, which were created by converting many existing buildings ....
External links
- Hull bombing map
- Interactive Hull bombing map
- Schedule of air raids
- People's memories
- People's memories
- The Hull Daily Mail - Blitz Special Edition
- Herbert Morrison, An Autobiography (1960)