History of sentence spacing
Encyclopedia
The history of sentence spacing is the evolution of sentence spacing conventions from the introduction of movable type
in Europe by Johannes Gutenberg to the present day.
Typesetting in all European languages enjoys a long tradition of using spaces of varying widths for the express purpose of enhancing readability. American, English, French, and other European typesetters' style guides—also known as printers' rules—specified spacing rules which were all essentially identical from the 18th century onwards. Early English language guides by Jacobi in the UK and MacKellar, Harpel, Bishop, and De Vinne in the USA specified that sentences would be separated by a single space, but one larger than that of a normal word space. The 1885 edition of The American Printer stated the practice of spacing text with "two thick spaces" between words "in wide-leaded matter" had gone out of fashion. Spaces between sentences were to be em
-spaced, and words would normally be 1/3 em-spaced, or occasionally 1/2 em-spaced (see illustration right). This remained standard for quite some time.
MacKellar's The American Printer was the dominant language style guide in the US at the time and ran to at least 17 editions between 1866 and 1893, and De Vinne's The Practice of Typography was the undisputed global authority on English-language typesetting style from 1901 until well past Dowding's first formal alternative spacing suggestion in the mid-1950s. Both the American and the UK style guides also specified that spaces should be inserted between punctuation and text. The MacKellar guide described these as hairspaces but itself used a much wider space than was then commonly regarded as a hairspace.) Spaces following words or punctuation were subject to line breaks and spaces between words and closely associated punctuation were non-breaking. Additionally, spaces were (and still are today) varied proportionally in width when justifying lines, originally by hand, later by machine, now usually by software.
The spacing differences between traditional typesetting and modern conventional printing standards are easily observed by comparing two different versions of the same book, from the Mabinogion
:
The 1999 example demonstrates the current convention for published work. The 1894 version demonstrates thin-spaced words but em-spaced sentences. It also demonstrates spaces around punctuation according to the rules above and equivalent to French typesetting today.
With the advent of the typewriter in the late 19th century, French and English typing standards diverged. Users adopted approximations of standard spacing practices to fit the limitations of the typewriter itself. However, French typists exclusively used a single space between sentences, consistent with the typeset French Spacing technique, whereas English typists used a double space.
These approximations were taught and used as the standard typing techniques in French and English-speaking countries. For example, T.S. Eliot typed rather than wrote the manuscript for his classic The Waste Land between 1920 and 1922, and used only English spacing throughout: double-spaced sentences.
Before the First World War virtually all English-language books were printed following standard typesetters' spacing rules. By the end of the Second World War most American books and an increasing proportion of English books were printed following the typewriter's English spacing approximation rules. Around this time, the practice of single spacing became more prevalent. There were various circumstances which could have contributed to the change. For example, there was an increase in high-volume low-cost mass-produced printing (e.g., newspapers, pulp-novels, magazines). Also, a significant innovation in the typewriter was the breaking of the typewriter "grid" in 1941. "The grid" referred to the uniform spacing of each letter space in the monospaced font used by the typewriter. In 1941, IBM
introduced the Executive, a typewriter that used proportional spacing by "breaking each cell of the grid into fifths." Although proportional fonts had been used in various forms in typesetting since the invention of movable type
, this innovation broke the hold that the monospaced font had over the typewriter—reducing the severity of its mechanical limitations.
Around the 1950s, single sentence spacing became the standard commercial practice in mass-print-runs in the United States. However, double sentence spacing approximations were retained some in higher-cost printed works. For example, for reasons of readability, the US government's 1959 official style guide mandated double sentence spacing in all government documents—whether produced by "Teletypesetter, reproduction or other method.": Single sentence spacing was introduced by professional printers in the United Kingdom as well. The 1947 version of Penguin Composition Rules stated that all Penguin
publications would adhere to the following rules: "All major punctuation marks – full point, colon, and semicolon – should be followed by the same spacing as is used throughout the rest of the line.".
Until about the early 1990s, double sentence spacing was still referred to as English spacing (or "American typewriter spacing").
(DTP
) software on Macintosh, Amiga, and IBM PC computers in the mid-1980s eliminated previous cost-restrictions that had helped fuel the switch to single-spacing. There was no longer any material marginal cost associated with typesetting double-spaces, or even multiple-width spaces. Despite this, resistance to double-spaced sentences started to grow among English-language professional designers and typographers as they became more directly involved with typesetting. Traditional French typists' rules continued to be the uncontested norm in French-speaking countries, but English spacing became increasingly deprecated in English-speaking countries.
By the mid-1990s, the term French spacing was occasionally used in America in reference to double sentence spacing. An example of this apparent terminology reversal can be attributed to the University of Chicago Press in 1994. By the mid-2000s this usage had been widely replicated on the Internet, for unclear reasons.
Additionally, there has been a designer-led trend towards closer-fitted text in general. For example, an increasing number of computer font design guidelines now recommend the use of quarter-em spaces rather than third-em spaces. With regard to spacing, modern designers are retracing the steps of the 19th-century design-led typographer William Morris
. Morris rejected the restrictions of commercial typesetting which at the time demanded traditional typesetting's spacing rules, and, declaring a "rage for beauty," advocated close-set type and dark "color" (lack of whitespace, creating uniformity of appearance). However, the reason Donald Knuth
gave for creating the TeX
typesetting system was his dismay on receiving the proofs of a new edition of his book The Art of Computer Programming
at the unreadability of the then new close-fitted phototypesetting technology, which he described as "awful" due to its "poor spacing." The leading style guides of Morris's time documented that readers of the time had the same reaction to Morris's output as Knuth did later to phototypesetting's output. De Vinne, for example, wrote in The Practice of Typography:
And in Modern Book Composition he wrote:
Varying the spacing between sentences, and using the changing spacing to encode information, is a standard method of steganography
, hiding secret information in public documents.
Movable type
Movable type is the system of printing and typography that uses movable components to reproduce the elements of a document ....
in Europe by Johannes Gutenberg to the present day.
Typesetting in all European languages enjoys a long tradition of using spaces of varying widths for the express purpose of enhancing readability. American, English, French, and other European typesetters' style guides—also known as printers' rules—specified spacing rules which were all essentially identical from the 18th century onwards. Early English language guides by Jacobi in the UK and MacKellar, Harpel, Bishop, and De Vinne in the USA specified that sentences would be separated by a single space, but one larger than that of a normal word space. The 1885 edition of The American Printer stated the practice of spacing text with "two thick spaces" between words "in wide-leaded matter" had gone out of fashion. Spaces between sentences were to be em
Em (typography)
An em is a unit of measurement in the field of typography, equal to the currently specified point size.The name of em is related to M. Originally the unit was derived from the width of the capital "M" in the given typeface....
-spaced, and words would normally be 1/3 em-spaced, or occasionally 1/2 em-spaced (see illustration right). This remained standard for quite some time.
MacKellar's The American Printer was the dominant language style guide in the US at the time and ran to at least 17 editions between 1866 and 1893, and De Vinne's The Practice of Typography was the undisputed global authority on English-language typesetting style from 1901 until well past Dowding's first formal alternative spacing suggestion in the mid-1950s. Both the American and the UK style guides also specified that spaces should be inserted between punctuation and text. The MacKellar guide described these as hairspaces but itself used a much wider space than was then commonly regarded as a hairspace.) Spaces following words or punctuation were subject to line breaks and spaces between words and closely associated punctuation were non-breaking. Additionally, spaces were (and still are today) varied proportionally in width when justifying lines, originally by hand, later by machine, now usually by software.
The spacing differences between traditional typesetting and modern conventional printing standards are easily observed by comparing two different versions of the same book, from the Mabinogion
Mabinogion
The Mabinogion is the title given to a collection of eleven prose stories collated from medieval Welsh manuscripts. The tales draw on pre-Christian Celtic mythology, international folktale motifs, and early medieval historical traditions...
:
- 1894: the Badger-in-the-bag game—traditional typesetting spacing rules: a single enlarged em-space between sentences
- 1999: the Badger-in-the-bag game—modern mass-production commercial printing: a single word space between sentences
The 1999 example demonstrates the current convention for published work. The 1894 version demonstrates thin-spaced words but em-spaced sentences. It also demonstrates spaces around punctuation according to the rules above and equivalent to French typesetting today.
French and English spacing
With the advent of the typewriter in the late 19th century, French and English typing standards diverged. Users adopted approximations of standard spacing practices to fit the limitations of the typewriter itself. However, French typists exclusively used a single space between sentences, consistent with the typeset French Spacing technique, whereas English typists used a double space.
- French spacing inserted spaces around most punctuation marks, but single-spaced after sentences, colons, and semicolons.
- English spacing removed spaces around most punctuation marks, but double-spaced after sentences, colons, and semicolons.
These approximations were taught and used as the standard typing techniques in French and English-speaking countries. For example, T.S. Eliot typed rather than wrote the manuscript for his classic The Waste Land between 1920 and 1922, and used only English spacing throughout: double-spaced sentences.
Movement to single sentence spacing
Typesetters continued to follow the original standards, but increasingly started to adopt the typists' approximations as their typesetting style, particularly in America but also in the UK and France. A key change in the publishing industry from the mid-19th century to the mid-20th century was the enormous growth of mass-produced books and magazines. Increasing commercial pressure to reduce the costs, complexity, and lead-time of printing deeply affected the industry, leading to a widening gap between commercial printing and fine printing. For example, T. S. Eliot's The Waste Land was originally published by a high-volume commercial printer according to its house rules and it was not until its third publication that Eliot was satisfied with its typesetting. The underlying reasons were:- ease and speed, since far less physical type and more importantly far less skilled effort was required
- cost, since fewer man-hours were required and the condensed text required less paper. The bulk of the cost saving was typesetting-related rather than paper-use-related
- cultural, since new typesetters (and readers) had grown up with typewriters and the standard typists' spacing approximations of good typesetting
Before the First World War virtually all English-language books were printed following standard typesetters' spacing rules. By the end of the Second World War most American books and an increasing proportion of English books were printed following the typewriter's English spacing approximation rules. Around this time, the practice of single spacing became more prevalent. There were various circumstances which could have contributed to the change. For example, there was an increase in high-volume low-cost mass-produced printing (e.g., newspapers, pulp-novels, magazines). Also, a significant innovation in the typewriter was the breaking of the typewriter "grid" in 1941. "The grid" referred to the uniform spacing of each letter space in the monospaced font used by the typewriter. In 1941, IBM
IBM
International Business Machines Corporation or IBM is an American multinational technology and consulting corporation headquartered in Armonk, New York, United States. IBM manufactures and sells computer hardware and software, and it offers infrastructure, hosting and consulting services in areas...
introduced the Executive, a typewriter that used proportional spacing by "breaking each cell of the grid into fifths." Although proportional fonts had been used in various forms in typesetting since the invention of movable type
Movable type
Movable type is the system of printing and typography that uses movable components to reproduce the elements of a document ....
, this innovation broke the hold that the monospaced font had over the typewriter—reducing the severity of its mechanical limitations.
Around the 1950s, single sentence spacing became the standard commercial practice in mass-print-runs in the United States. However, double sentence spacing approximations were retained some in higher-cost printed works. For example, for reasons of readability, the US government's 1959 official style guide mandated double sentence spacing in all government documents—whether produced by "Teletypesetter, reproduction or other method.": Single sentence spacing was introduced by professional printers in the United Kingdom as well. The 1947 version of Penguin Composition Rules stated that all Penguin
Penguin Books
Penguin Books is a publisher founded in 1935 by Sir Allen Lane and V.K. Krishna Menon. Penguin revolutionised publishing in the 1930s through its high quality, inexpensive paperbacks, sold through Woolworths and other high street stores for sixpence. Penguin's success demonstrated that large...
publications would adhere to the following rules: "All major punctuation marks – full point, colon, and semicolon – should be followed by the same spacing as is used throughout the rest of the line.".
Until about the early 1990s, double sentence spacing was still referred to as English spacing (or "American typewriter spacing").
The Computer Era
The introduction and widespread adoption of non-commandline Desktop PublishingDesktop publishing
Desktop publishing is the creation of documents using page layout software on a personal computer.The term has been used for publishing at all levels, from small-circulation documents such as local newsletters to books, magazines and newspapers...
(DTP
Desktop publishing
Desktop publishing is the creation of documents using page layout software on a personal computer.The term has been used for publishing at all levels, from small-circulation documents such as local newsletters to books, magazines and newspapers...
) software on Macintosh, Amiga, and IBM PC computers in the mid-1980s eliminated previous cost-restrictions that had helped fuel the switch to single-spacing. There was no longer any material marginal cost associated with typesetting double-spaces, or even multiple-width spaces. Despite this, resistance to double-spaced sentences started to grow among English-language professional designers and typographers as they became more directly involved with typesetting. Traditional French typists' rules continued to be the uncontested norm in French-speaking countries, but English spacing became increasingly deprecated in English-speaking countries.
By the mid-1990s, the term French spacing was occasionally used in America in reference to double sentence spacing. An example of this apparent terminology reversal can be attributed to the University of Chicago Press in 1994. By the mid-2000s this usage had been widely replicated on the Internet, for unclear reasons.
Additionally, there has been a designer-led trend towards closer-fitted text in general. For example, an increasing number of computer font design guidelines now recommend the use of quarter-em spaces rather than third-em spaces. With regard to spacing, modern designers are retracing the steps of the 19th-century design-led typographer William Morris
William Morris
William Morris 24 March 18343 October 1896 was an English textile designer, artist, writer, and socialist associated with the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood and the English Arts and Crafts Movement...
. Morris rejected the restrictions of commercial typesetting which at the time demanded traditional typesetting's spacing rules, and, declaring a "rage for beauty," advocated close-set type and dark "color" (lack of whitespace, creating uniformity of appearance). However, the reason Donald Knuth
Donald Knuth
Donald Ervin Knuth is a computer scientist and Professor Emeritus at Stanford University.He is the author of the seminal multi-volume work The Art of Computer Programming. Knuth has been called the "father" of the analysis of algorithms...
gave for creating the TeX
TeX
TeX is a typesetting system designed and mostly written by Donald Knuth and released in 1978. Within the typesetting system, its name is formatted as ....
typesetting system was his dismay on receiving the proofs of a new edition of his book The Art of Computer Programming
The Art of Computer Programming
The Art of Computer Programming is a comprehensive monograph written by Donald Knuth that covers many kinds of programming algorithms and their analysis....
at the unreadability of the then new close-fitted phototypesetting technology, which he described as "awful" due to its "poor spacing." The leading style guides of Morris's time documented that readers of the time had the same reaction to Morris's output as Knuth did later to phototypesetting's output. De Vinne, for example, wrote in The Practice of Typography:
Printed words need the relief of a surrounding blank as much as figures in a landscape need background or contrast, perspective or atmosphere.(p.182)
White space is needed to make printing comprehensible.(p.183)
And in Modern Book Composition he wrote:
Unleaded and thin-spaced composition is preferred by the disciples of William Morris, but it is not liked by the average reader, who does need a perceptible white blank between words or lines of print. During the fifteenth century, when thin leads and graduated spaces were almost unknown and but little used, the reading world had its surfeit of close-spaced and solid typesetting. (p.105)
Varying the spacing between sentences, and using the changing spacing to encode information, is a standard method of steganography
Steganography
Steganography is the art and science of writing hidden messages in such a way that no one, apart from the sender and intended recipient, suspects the existence of the message, a form of security through obscurity...
, hiding secret information in public documents.
See also
- Sentence spacing
- Sentence spacing in language and style guidesSentence spacing in language and style guidesSentence spacing guidance is provided in many language and style guides. The majority of style guides that use a Latin-derived alphabet as a language base prescribe or recommend the use of a single space after the concluding punctuation of a sentence in final written works and publications...
- Sentence spacing in the digital ageSentence spacing in the digital ageSentence spacing in digital media is the horizontal space between sentences in computer and web-based media. Digital media allow sentence spacing variations not possible with the typewriter. Most digital fonts permit the use of a variable space or a no-break space...
- Sentence spacing studiesSentence spacing studiesSentence spacing studies analyse the effects of sentence spacing techniques on the readability of text. The only direct scientific studies have been conducted by researchers from the University of Georgia, for on-screen text...
External links
- Discussion of double-spacing, French spacing, and English spacing, in the context of Tablet (untyped) input: Two spaces after period?
- PHP SmartyPants Typographer: PHP MarkDown extension inserting key French spacing non-breaking spaces into entered text
- A "Silesian Vocational and Technical" (1960) training video for Linotype machines, notable for its clarity regarding the technology's strengths and limitations, and the full explanation of the consequent spacing practice