Historical thinking
Encyclopedia
Historical thinking is defined by many education resources as a set of reasoning skills that students of history should learn as a result of studying history
. Sometimes called historical reasoning skills, historical thinking skills are frequently described in contrast to history content such as names, dates, and places. This dichotomous
presentation is often misinterpreted as a claim for superiority of one form of knowing over the other. In fact, the distinction is generally made to underscore the importance of developing thinking skills that can be applied when individuals encounter any history content. Most educators agree that together, history content--or facts about the past--and historical thinking skills enable students to interpret, analyze and use information about past events.
at the University of California
, Los Angeles has developed history standards that include benchmark
s for both content in U.S. and world history and historical thinking skills in grades Kindergarten
-4 and 5-12. In both of these age ranges, the Center defines historical thinking in five parts:
As part of the national assessment effort called “The Nation’s Report Card, ” the United States Department of Education has also developed benchmarks for student achievement in U.S. history. Their rubric divides history learning into three basic dimensions: major historical themes, chronological periods, and ways of knowing and thinking about history. The third dimension is further divided into two parts: historical knowledge and perspective, and historical analysis and interpretation.
s is nearly universal in history
, government
, and other social studies
courses at the primary
, and secondary
levels in the U.S.; however, the role of textbooks remains controversial.
Arguments against reliance on textbooks have ranged from ideological to pragmatic. In the past, textbooks received criticism for under-representing the roles of women and minorities throughout history. Although modern textbook writers strive to include minority voices and great breadth of perspective in describing the course of past events, vigilant critics continue to identify examples of bias and misinformation.
Others object to textbooks on epistemological grounds. Such critics point out that textbooks written in an omniscient, third person voice that claim to present “objective facts” are misleading. Such texts encourage students to believe that one interpretation of events is sufficient and correct. In addition, critics contend that textbooks written in this manner are perceived by students as dry and uninteresting and discourage students from reading history, creating motivation
al barriers to learning.
Still other critics believe that using textbooks undermines the process of learning history by sacrificing thinking skills for content--that textbooks allow teachers to cover vast amounts of names, dates and places, while encouraging students to simply memorize instead of question or analyze.
Most textbook critics concede that textbooks are a necessary tool in history education. Arguments for textbook-based curricula
point out that history teachers require resources to support the broad scope of topics covered in the typical history classroom. Well-designed textbooks can provide a foundation on which enterprising educators can build other classroom activities.
History
History is the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events. History can also mean the period of time after writing was invented. Scholars who write about history are called historians...
. Sometimes called historical reasoning skills, historical thinking skills are frequently described in contrast to history content such as names, dates, and places. This dichotomous
Dichotomy
A dichotomy is any splitting of a whole into exactly two non-overlapping parts, meaning it is a procedure in which a whole is divided into two parts...
presentation is often misinterpreted as a claim for superiority of one form of knowing over the other. In fact, the distinction is generally made to underscore the importance of developing thinking skills that can be applied when individuals encounter any history content. Most educators agree that together, history content--or facts about the past--and historical thinking skills enable students to interpret, analyze and use information about past events.
U.S. Standards for Historical Thinking in Schools
In the United States, the National Center for History in the SchoolsNational Center for History in the Schools
National Center for History in the Schools is most known for the development of the National History Standards and Historical Thinking Standards used throughout the United States...
at the University of California
University of California
The University of California is a public university system in the U.S. state of California. Under the California Master Plan for Higher Education, the University of California is a part of the state's three-tier public higher education system, which also includes the California State University...
, Los Angeles has developed history standards that include benchmark
Specification (technical standard)
A specification is an explicit set of requirements to be satisfied by a material, product, or service. Should a material, product or service fail to meet one or more of the applicable specifications, it may be referred to as being out of specification;the abbreviation OOS may also be used...
s for both content in U.S. and world history and historical thinking skills in grades Kindergarten
Kindergarten
A kindergarten is a preschool educational institution for children. The term was created by Friedrich Fröbel for the play and activity institute that he created in 1837 in Bad Blankenburg as a social experience for children for their transition from home to school...
-4 and 5-12. In both of these age ranges, the Center defines historical thinking in five parts:
- Chronological Thinking
- Historical ComprehensionUnderstandingUnderstanding is a psychological process related to an abstract or physical object, such as a person, situation, or message whereby one is able to think about it and use concepts to deal adequately with that object....
- Historical Analysis and InterpretationInterpretation (logic)An interpretation is an assignment of meaning to the symbols of a formal language. Many formal languages used in mathematics, logic, and theoretical computer science are defined in solely syntactic terms, and as such do not have any meaning until they are given some interpretation...
- Historical ResearchResearchResearch can be defined as the scientific search for knowledge, or as any systematic investigation, to establish novel facts, solve new or existing problems, prove new ideas, or develop new theories, usually using a scientific method...
Capabilities - Historical Issues-Analysis and Decision-Making
As part of the national assessment effort called “The Nation’s Report Card, ” the United States Department of Education has also developed benchmarks for student achievement in U.S. history. Their rubric divides history learning into three basic dimensions: major historical themes, chronological periods, and ways of knowing and thinking about history. The third dimension is further divided into two parts: historical knowledge and perspective, and historical analysis and interpretation.
The Role of the History Textbook in Learning to Think Historically
History textbooks draw much attention from history educators and educational researchers. The use of textbookTextbook
A textbook or coursebook is a manual of instruction in any branch of study. Textbooks are produced according to the demands of educational institutions...
s is nearly universal in history
History
History is the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events. History can also mean the period of time after writing was invented. Scholars who write about history are called historians...
, government
Government
Government refers to the legislators, administrators, and arbitrators in the administrative bureaucracy who control a state at a given time, and to the system of government by which they are organized...
, and other social studies
Social studies
Social studies is the "integrated study of the social sciences and humanities to promote civic competence," as defined by the American National Council for the Social Studies...
courses at the primary
Primary education
A primary school is an institution in which children receive the first stage of compulsory education known as primary or elementary education. Primary school is the preferred term in the United Kingdom and many Commonwealth Nations, and in most publications of the United Nations Educational,...
, and secondary
Secondary education
Secondary education is the stage of education following primary education. Secondary education includes the final stage of compulsory education and in many countries it is entirely compulsory. The next stage of education is usually college or university...
levels in the U.S.; however, the role of textbooks remains controversial.
Arguments against reliance on textbooks have ranged from ideological to pragmatic. In the past, textbooks received criticism for under-representing the roles of women and minorities throughout history. Although modern textbook writers strive to include minority voices and great breadth of perspective in describing the course of past events, vigilant critics continue to identify examples of bias and misinformation.
Others object to textbooks on epistemological grounds. Such critics point out that textbooks written in an omniscient, third person voice that claim to present “objective facts” are misleading. Such texts encourage students to believe that one interpretation of events is sufficient and correct. In addition, critics contend that textbooks written in this manner are perceived by students as dry and uninteresting and discourage students from reading history, creating motivation
Motivation
Motivation is the driving force by which humans achieve their goals. Motivation is said to be intrinsic or extrinsic. The term is generally used for humans but it can also be used to describe the causes for animal behavior as well. This article refers to human motivation...
al barriers to learning.
Still other critics believe that using textbooks undermines the process of learning history by sacrificing thinking skills for content--that textbooks allow teachers to cover vast amounts of names, dates and places, while encouraging students to simply memorize instead of question or analyze.
Most textbook critics concede that textbooks are a necessary tool in history education. Arguments for textbook-based curricula
Curriculum
See also Syllabus.In formal education, a curriculum is the set of courses, and their content, offered at a school or university. As an idea, curriculum stems from the Latin word for race course, referring to the course of deeds and experiences through which children grow to become mature adults...
point out that history teachers require resources to support the broad scope of topics covered in the typical history classroom. Well-designed textbooks can provide a foundation on which enterprising educators can build other classroom activities.
Resources
- Kobrin, David. Beyond the Textbook: Teaching History Using Primary Sources. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1996.
- Loewen, James. Lies My Teacher Told MeLies My Teacher Told MeLies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong is a 1995 book by sociologist James Loewen. It critically examines twelve American history textbooks and concludes that textbook authors propagate factually false, Eurocentric, and mythologized views of history...
: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong. New York: Touchstone, 1995. - National Center for Education Statistics. National Assessment of Educational Progress: Nation’s Report Card. 2003. <http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/ushistory/> (last accessed 29 June 2004).
- National Center for History in the Schools. National Standards for History. 1996. <http://nchs.ucla.edu/Standards/historical-thinking-standards-1> (last accessed 14 February 2011).
- Stearns, P., Seixas, P, Wineburg, S (Eds.). Knowing, Teaching and Learning History: National and International Perspectives. New York: NYU Press, 2000.
- Wineburg, Sam. Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2001.
- National History Education ClearinghouseNational History Education ClearinghouseTeachinghistory.org, also known as the National History Education Clearinghouse , is a website that provides educational resources for the study of U.S...