High test peroxide
Encyclopedia
High-test peroxide or HTP is a high (85 to 98 percent)-concentration solution of hydrogen peroxide
, with the remainder predominantly made up of water. In contact with a catalyst, it decomposes into a high-temperature mixture of steam and oxygen, with no remaining liquid water. It was used as a propellant of HTP rocket
s and torpedo
es, and has been used for high-performance vernier engines.
, or with a separate fuel as a bipropellant.
HTP has been used safely (except when used as an oxidizer, with a hypergolic rocket fuel such as C-Stoff
) and successfully in many applications, beginning with German usage during World War II
, and continues to the present day. During World War II, high-test peroxide was used as an oxidizer in some German bipropellant rocket designs, such as the Walter HWK 509A
rocket engine that powered the Messerschmitt Me 163
point defense interceptor fighter late in World War II, comprising 80% of the standardized mixture T-Stoff
, and also in the German Type XVII submarine.
Some significant United States programs include the reaction control thrusters on the X-15 program, and the Bell Rocket Belt
. The NASA Lunar Lander Research Vehicle used it for rocket thrust to simulate a lunar lander.
The Royal Navy
experimented with HTP as the oxidiser in the experimental high-speed target/training submarines and between 1958 and 1969.
The first Russian HTP torpedo was known by the strictly functional name of 53-57, the 53 referring to the diameter in centimeters of the torpedo tube, the 57 to the year it was introduced. Driven by the Cold War
competition, they ordered the development of a larger HTP torpedo, to be fired from the 65-centimeter tubes.
British experiments with HTP as a torpedo fuel were discontinued after a peroxide fire resulted in the loss of the submarine in 1956.
British experimentation with HTP continued in rocketry research, ending with the Black Arrow
launch vehicles in 1971. Black Arrow rockets successfully launched the Prospero X-3
satellite from Woomera, South Australia
using HTP and kerosene
fuel.
An accident involving an HTP torpedo is believed to be the cause of the Russian submarine Kursk explosion
.
With concentration of 82%, it is still in use on the Russian Soyuz rocket to drive the turbopump
s on the boosters
and on the orbital vehicle.
HTP will be used in an attempt to break the land speed record with the Bloodhound SSC
car, aiming to reach over 1000 mph.
Hydrogen peroxide works best as a propellant in extremely high concentrations - roughly over 70%. Although any concentration of peroxide will generate some hot gas (oxygen plus some steam), at concentrations above approximately 67%, the heat of decomposing hydrogen peroxide becomes large enough to completely vaporize all the liquid at standard temperature. This represents a safety and utilization turning point, since decomposition of any concentration above this amount is capable of transforming the liquid entirely to heated gas (the higher the concentration, the hotter the resulting gas). This very hot steam/oxygen mixture can then be used to generate maximal thrust, power, or work, but it also makes explosive decomposition of the material far more hazardous.
Normal propellant-grade concentrations, therefore, vary from 70 to 98%, with common grades of 70, 85, 90, and 98%. Many of these grades and variations are described in detail in the United States propellant specification number MIL-P-16005 Revision F, which is currently available. The available suppliers of high-concentration propellant-grade hydrogen peroxide are, in general, one of the large commercial companies that make other grades of hydrogen peroxide, including Solvay Interox
, FMC
, and Degussa. X-L Space Systems upgrades technical-grade hydrogen peroxide to HTP. Other companies that have made propellant-grade hydrogen peroxide in the recent past include Air Liquide
and DuPont
. DuPont recently sold its hydrogen peroxide manufacturing business to Degussa.
is extremely dangerous with hydrogen peroxide; peroxide vapor can ignite or detonate depending on specific combinations of temperature and pressure. In general, any boiling mass of high-concentration hydrogen peroxide at ambient pressure will produce vapor-phase hydrogen peroxide, which can detonate. This hazard is mitigated, but not entirely eliminated with vacuum distillation. Other approaches for concentrating hydrogen peroxide are sparging
and fractional crystallization
.
High-concentration hydrogen peroxide is readily available in 70, 90, and 98% concentrations in sizes of 1-gallon, 30-gallon, and bulk-tanker truck volumes. Propellant-grade hydrogen peroxide is being used on current military systems and is in numerous defense and aerospace research and development programs. Many privately funded rocket companies are using hydrogen peroxide, such as Armadillo Aerospace
and Blue Origin
, and some amateur groups have expressed interest in manufacturing their own peroxide, for their use and for sale in small quantities to others.
decomposition into steam and oxygen, handling of HTP requires special care and equipment. It is noted that the common materials iron and copper are incompatible with peroxide, but the reaction can be delayed for seconds or minutes, depending on the grade of peroxide used.
Small hydrogen peroxide spills are easily dealt with by flooding the area with water. Not only does this cool any reacting peroxide but it also dilutes it thoroughly. Therefore, sites that handle hydrogen peroxide are often equipped with emergency showers, and have hoses and people on safety duty.
Contact with skin causes immediate whitening due to the production of oxygen below the skin. Extensive burns occur unless washed off in seconds. Contact with eyes can cause blindness, and so eye protection is usually used. Protective 'moon suit'-style clothing that does not spontaneously absorb or combust with peroxide is recommended.
Hydrogen peroxide
Hydrogen peroxide is the simplest peroxide and an oxidizer. Hydrogen peroxide is a clear liquid, slightly more viscous than water. In dilute solution, it appears colorless. With its oxidizing properties, hydrogen peroxide is often used as a bleach or cleaning agent...
, with the remainder predominantly made up of water. In contact with a catalyst, it decomposes into a high-temperature mixture of steam and oxygen, with no remaining liquid water. It was used as a propellant of HTP rocket
Rocket
A rocket is a missile, spacecraft, aircraft or other vehicle which obtains thrust from a rocket engine. In all rockets, the exhaust is formed entirely from propellants carried within the rocket before use. Rocket engines work by action and reaction...
s and torpedo
Torpedo
The modern torpedo is a self-propelled missile weapon with an explosive warhead, launched above or below the water surface, propelled underwater towards a target, and designed to detonate either on contact with it or in proximity to it.The term torpedo was originally employed for...
es, and has been used for high-performance vernier engines.
Applications
When used with a suitable catalyst, HTP can be used as a monopropellantMonopropellant
Monopropellants are propellants composed of chemicals or mixtures of chemicals which can be stored in a single container with some degree of safety. While stable under defined storage conditions, they react very rapidly under certain other conditions to produce a large volume of energetic gases...
, or with a separate fuel as a bipropellant.
HTP has been used safely (except when used as an oxidizer, with a hypergolic rocket fuel such as C-Stoff
C-Stoff
C-Stoff was a reductant used in bipropellant rocket fuels developed by Hellmuth Walter Kommanditgesellschaft in Germany during World War 2...
) and successfully in many applications, beginning with German usage during World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
, and continues to the present day. During World War II, high-test peroxide was used as an oxidizer in some German bipropellant rocket designs, such as the Walter HWK 509A
Walter HWK 109-509
-See also:-Bibliography:*Jane's Fighting Aircraft of World War II. London. Studio Editions Ltd, 1989. ISBN 0-517-67964-7-External links:*...
rocket engine that powered the Messerschmitt Me 163
Messerschmitt Me 163
The Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet, designed by Alexander Lippisch, was a German rocket-powered fighter aircraft. It is the only rocket-powered fighter aircraft ever to have been operational. Its design was revolutionary, and the Me 163 was capable of performance unrivaled at the time. Messerschmitt...
point defense interceptor fighter late in World War II, comprising 80% of the standardized mixture T-Stoff
T-Stoff
T-Stoff was the oxidizer part of a bipropellant rocket fuel combination used in Germany during World War II. It is a stabilized high test peroxide...
, and also in the German Type XVII submarine.
Some significant United States programs include the reaction control thrusters on the X-15 program, and the Bell Rocket Belt
Bell Rocket Belt
The Bell Rocket Belt is a low-power rocket propulsion device that allows an individual to safely travel or leap over small distances. It is a type of rocket pack.-Overview:...
. The NASA Lunar Lander Research Vehicle used it for rocket thrust to simulate a lunar lander.
The Royal Navy
Royal Navy
The Royal Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Founded in the 16th century, it is the oldest service branch and is known as the Senior Service...
experimented with HTP as the oxidiser in the experimental high-speed target/training submarines and between 1958 and 1969.
The first Russian HTP torpedo was known by the strictly functional name of 53-57, the 53 referring to the diameter in centimeters of the torpedo tube, the 57 to the year it was introduced. Driven by the Cold War
Cold War
The Cold War was the continuing state from roughly 1946 to 1991 of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition between the Communist World—primarily the Soviet Union and its satellite states and allies—and the powers of the Western world, primarily the United States...
competition, they ordered the development of a larger HTP torpedo, to be fired from the 65-centimeter tubes.
British experiments with HTP as a torpedo fuel were discontinued after a peroxide fire resulted in the loss of the submarine in 1956.
British experimentation with HTP continued in rocketry research, ending with the Black Arrow
Black Arrow
Black Arrow, officially capitalised BLACK ARROW, was a British satellite carrier rocket. Developed during the 1960s, it was used for four launches between 1969 and 1971...
launch vehicles in 1971. Black Arrow rockets successfully launched the Prospero X-3
Prospero X-3
-External links:* from "Woomera on the Web"* from Encyclopedia Astronautica* in the Global Frequency Database...
satellite from Woomera, South Australia
Woomera, South Australia
The town, or village, of Woomera is located in the south east corner of the Woomera Prohibited Area ; colloquially known as the Woomera Rocket Range...
using HTP and kerosene
Kerosene
Kerosene, sometimes spelled kerosine in scientific and industrial usage, also known as paraffin or paraffin oil in the United Kingdom, Hong Kong, Ireland and South Africa, is a combustible hydrocarbon liquid. The name is derived from Greek keros...
fuel.
An accident involving an HTP torpedo is believed to be the cause of the Russian submarine Kursk explosion
Russian submarine Kursk explosion
On 12 August 2000, the Russian Oscar II class submarine Kursk sank in the Barents Sea after an explosion. The investigation showed that a leak of hydrogen peroxide in a torpedo led to explosion of its fuel, causing the submarine to hit the bottom which in turn triggered the detonation of further...
.
With concentration of 82%, it is still in use on the Russian Soyuz rocket to drive the turbopump
Turbopump
A turbopump is a gas turbine that comprises basically two main components: a rotodynamic pump and a driving turbine, usually both mounted on the same shaft, or sometimes geared together...
s on the boosters
Booster rocket
A booster rocket is either the first stage of a multi-stage launch vehicle, or else a strap-on rocket used to augment the core launch vehicle's takeoff thrust and payload capability. Boosters are generally necessary to launch spacecraft into Earth orbit or beyond...
and on the orbital vehicle.
HTP will be used in an attempt to break the land speed record with the Bloodhound SSC
Bloodhound SSC
Bloodhound SSC is the name of a project aiming to break the land speed record with a pencil-shaped car powered by a jet engine and a rocket designed to reach approximately...
car, aiming to reach over 1000 mph.
Hydrogen peroxide works best as a propellant in extremely high concentrations - roughly over 70%. Although any concentration of peroxide will generate some hot gas (oxygen plus some steam), at concentrations above approximately 67%, the heat of decomposing hydrogen peroxide becomes large enough to completely vaporize all the liquid at standard temperature. This represents a safety and utilization turning point, since decomposition of any concentration above this amount is capable of transforming the liquid entirely to heated gas (the higher the concentration, the hotter the resulting gas). This very hot steam/oxygen mixture can then be used to generate maximal thrust, power, or work, but it also makes explosive decomposition of the material far more hazardous.
Normal propellant-grade concentrations, therefore, vary from 70 to 98%, with common grades of 70, 85, 90, and 98%. Many of these grades and variations are described in detail in the United States propellant specification number MIL-P-16005 Revision F, which is currently available. The available suppliers of high-concentration propellant-grade hydrogen peroxide are, in general, one of the large commercial companies that make other grades of hydrogen peroxide, including Solvay Interox
Solvay
Solvay may refer to* Solvay , an international chemicals and plastics company* the Solvay process* Ernest Solvay, its inventor* Solvay Conference* the Solvay Business School* Solvay, New York* Solvay Hut, on the Matterhorn...
, FMC
FMC
-USA:*Federal Maritime Commission, federal agency responsible for the regulation of oceanborne transportation in the foreign commerce of the U.S.*FMC Corporation, ticker symbol FMC, formerly Food Machinery Corporation and Food Machinery and Chemical Corporation...
, and Degussa. X-L Space Systems upgrades technical-grade hydrogen peroxide to HTP. Other companies that have made propellant-grade hydrogen peroxide in the recent past include Air Liquide
Air Liquide
L'Air Liquide S.A., or Air Liquide , is a major French company supplying industrial gases and services to various industries including medical, chemical and electronic manufacturers. Founded in 1902, it is first in the world market in its field, now operating in over 80 countries. It is...
and DuPont
DuPont
E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company , commonly referred to as DuPont, is an American chemical company that was founded in July 1802 as a gunpowder mill by Eleuthère Irénée du Pont. DuPont was the world's third largest chemical company based on market capitalization and ninth based on revenue in 2009...
. DuPont recently sold its hydrogen peroxide manufacturing business to Degussa.
Availability
Propellant-grade hydrogen peroxide is available to qualified buyers. In typical circumstances, this chemical is sold only to commercial companies or government institutions that have the ability to properly handle and utilize the material. Non-professionals have purchased hydrogen peroxide of 70% or lower concentration (the remaining 30% is water with traces of impurities and stabilizing materials, such as tin salts, phosphates, nitrates, and other chemical additives), and increased its concentration themselves. DistillationDistillation
Distillation is a method of separating mixtures based on differences in volatilities of components in a boiling liquid mixture. Distillation is a unit operation, or a physical separation process, and not a chemical reaction....
is extremely dangerous with hydrogen peroxide; peroxide vapor can ignite or detonate depending on specific combinations of temperature and pressure. In general, any boiling mass of high-concentration hydrogen peroxide at ambient pressure will produce vapor-phase hydrogen peroxide, which can detonate. This hazard is mitigated, but not entirely eliminated with vacuum distillation. Other approaches for concentrating hydrogen peroxide are sparging
Sparging (chemistry)
In chemistry, sparging, also known as gas flushing in metallurgy, is a technique which involves bubbling a chemically inert gas, such as nitrogen, argon, or helium, through a liquid. This can be used to remove dissolved gases In chemistry, sparging, also known as gas flushing in metallurgy, is a...
and fractional crystallization
Fractional crystallization (chemistry)
In chemistry, fractional crystallization is a method of refining substances based on differences in solubility. If a mixture of two or more substances in solution is allowed to crystallize, for example by allowing the temperature of the solution to decrease, the precipitate will contain more of...
.
High-concentration hydrogen peroxide is readily available in 70, 90, and 98% concentrations in sizes of 1-gallon, 30-gallon, and bulk-tanker truck volumes. Propellant-grade hydrogen peroxide is being used on current military systems and is in numerous defense and aerospace research and development programs. Many privately funded rocket companies are using hydrogen peroxide, such as Armadillo Aerospace
Armadillo Aerospace
Armadillo Aerospace is an aerospace startup company based in Mesquite, Texas. Its initial goal is to build a manned suborbital spacecraft capable of space tourism, but it has stated long-term ambitions of orbital spaceflight. The company was founded by John Carmack.On October 24, 2008, Armadillo...
and Blue Origin
Blue Origin
Blue Origin is a privately funded aerospace company set up by Amazon.com founder Jeff Bezos. The company was awarded $3.7 million in funding in 2009 by NASA via a Space Act Agreement under the Commercial Crew Development program for development of concepts and technologies to support future human...
, and some amateur groups have expressed interest in manufacturing their own peroxide, for their use and for sale in small quantities to others.
Safety
Since many common substances catalyze peroxide exothermicExothermic
In thermodynamics, the term exothermic describes a process or reaction that releases energy from the system, usually in the form of heat, but also in the form of light , electricity , or sound...
decomposition into steam and oxygen, handling of HTP requires special care and equipment. It is noted that the common materials iron and copper are incompatible with peroxide, but the reaction can be delayed for seconds or minutes, depending on the grade of peroxide used.
Small hydrogen peroxide spills are easily dealt with by flooding the area with water. Not only does this cool any reacting peroxide but it also dilutes it thoroughly. Therefore, sites that handle hydrogen peroxide are often equipped with emergency showers, and have hoses and people on safety duty.
Contact with skin causes immediate whitening due to the production of oxygen below the skin. Extensive burns occur unless washed off in seconds. Contact with eyes can cause blindness, and so eye protection is usually used. Protective 'moon suit'-style clothing that does not spontaneously absorb or combust with peroxide is recommended.