Habib ibn Abi Obeida al-Fihri
Encyclopedia
Habib ibn Abi Obeida al-Fihri (died October 741
) was an Arab military commander of the illustrious Fihrid (or 'Oqbid') family who played an important role in the early history of Ifriqiya
(North Africa) and al-Andalus
(Spain).
, conqueror of North Africa
). Habib was the scion of the Fihrids
, the leading Arab aristocratic family of Kairouan
.
Habib ibn Abi Obeida participated in the 712 expedition of Ifriqiyan governor Musa ibn Nusair to conquer Spain
. In 714, Habib was appointed alongside Musa's own son Abd al-Aziz
as vice-governor in Spain
. Ibn Khaldun
alleges it was Habib who received the order and carried out the assassination of Abd al-Aziz in 716, and personally carried the dead man's head to Damascus
, and presented it to the Caliph Sulayman
Habib eventually returned to North Africa, and became one of the leading commanders of the Ifriqiya
n army, particularly during the tenure of Obeid Allah ibn el-Habhab as governor of Ifriqiya
from 734
. Obeid Allah, an inherent administrator, seemed to place great trust in Habib on military matters.
In 735, Habib ibn Abi Obeida led the Arab armies in the conquest of the Sous
valley of southern Morocco, bringing the Moroccan hinterlands more firmly within the Umayyad Caliphate.
In early 740, Habib headed a large Arab expedition to Sicily
, in what was possibly the first attempt at a full-scale invasion
of the island (rather than a mere raid). Habib had a successful landing and laid a brief siege to Syracuse, securing its submission to tribute.
The Great Berber Revolt
in the western Maghreb Morocco
broke out during Habib's absence. Indeed, it seems the Berber leader Maysara al-Matghari
delayed the start of the uprising until Habib had left with the bulk of the Ifriqiyan army for Sicily. Upon hearing the news, Habib aborted the Sicilian campaign, and shipped his army quickly back to Africa to help quell the uprising.
While waiting for Habib to return, Obeid Allah
assembled a cavalry-heavy column from the nobles of Kairouan
, placing it under the command of Khalid ibn Abi Habib al-Fihri
(possibly Habib's brother, see Fihrids
). This vanguard column was to hold a line in the outskirts of Tangiers, and keep the rebels in check, until Habib arrived with his Sicilian expeditionary army. But the Berber rebels did not wait. Under their new leader, Khalid ibn Hamid al-Zanati
, the Berbers attacked and annihilated the Arab column in what became known as the Battle of the Nobles
in late October/November 740.
Habib ibn Abi Obeida's army arrived too late to prevent the massacre of the nobles. Unable to take on the Berbers by himself, he withdrew his army to Tlemcen
to pick up reserves, only to find that city in disarray. The Umayyad garrison commander, Ibn al-Mughira, had, in a state of panic, initiated a series of indiscriminate massacres in an pre-emptive effort to quell an uprising, and ended up provoking that uprising himself. Bewildered and angry, Habib let his fury fall on Musa ibn Abi Khalid, an Umayyad captain who had bravely stayed behind collecting loyal forces. Accusing him of causing the uprising, Habib ordered Musa's hand and leg chopped off.
Collecting what remained of the Umayyad army in Ifriqiya, Habib ibn Abi Obeida entrenched himself in a defensive line in the vicinity of Tlemcen
(or perhaps as far back as Tahert
) and appealed to Kairouan
for reinforcements. His request was forwarded to Damascus
.
In the Spring of 741, Umayyad Caliph Hisham dispatched a new governor Kulthum ibn Iyad al-Qasi
at the head of a fresh Arab army, drawn from the Syrian junds. The Syrian cavalry, under Kulthum's nephew, Balj ibn Bishr al-Qushayri
, was the first to arrive in Kairouan
and they imposed themselves on the city, billeting troops, requisitioning supplies, and threatening its inhabitants. The people of Kairouan
appealed to Habib ibn Abi Obeida (then still encamped in the environs of Tlemcen, with some 40,000 Ifriqiyan troops) for assistance. Angered by the reports, Habib fired off a heated missive to Kulthum, threatening to turn his own army against the Syrians if he did not curb his nephew and put an end to the abuses in Kairouan.
The junction between the Syrian and Ifriqiyan armies near Tlemcen
did not go any more smoothly. The Ifriqiyans were still smoldering about the Kairouan reports and offended by Syrian high-handedness, while the Syrians remained incensed at what they perceived to be ingratitude. Balj immediately brought up the issue of the threats Habib had made in his heated letter, and demanded that his uncle Kulthum ibn Iyad arrest the Ifriqiyan commander for treason. Habib in turn threatened to decamp unless Kulthum brought his nephew to order and treated the Ifriqiyans with more respect. The armies nearly came to blows. But by smooth diplomacy, Kulthum managed to patch over the quarrels and hold the armies together. But the mutual resentments would play a role in what followed.
The joint Syrian-Ifriqiyan army clashed with the Berber rebels at the Battle of Bagdoura
, by the Sebou river
(near modern Fez
) in October, 741
. In setting up the battle, Kulthum disdained Habib ibn Abi Obeida's experience and advice on how to fight the Berbers - 'foot for foot, horse for horse' - and instead sent the Arab cavalry forth against the Berber foot. Berber slingers and missile troops quickly dehorsed and separated them, depriving the Arabs of their best asset. The Berbers then fell upon the Arab infantry, overwhelming them with numbers and targeting their commanders. The Ifriqiyan column was the first to be hit, and Habib ibn Abi Obeida among the first to be killed.
Once Habib was known to have fallen, the Ifriqiyan troops felt no compulsion to remain in the field with the hateful Syrians, and quickly broke ranks and fled, leaving the Syrians to fight alone. The defeat turned into a rout. Some two-thirds of the Arab forces, including the governor Kulthum, were either killed or captured by the Berbers.
The Ifriqiyan remnant fled in a scattered manner back to Kairouan
, while the remainder of the Syrian army, held together by Balj ibn Bishr
, scampered to Ceuta
and secured passage over to al-Andalus
. Habib's eldest son, Abd al-Rahman ibn Habib al-Fihri survived the battle and accompanied the Syrians to Spain.
Habib was survived by several sons, notably Abd al-Rahman, Ilyas
, Abd al-Wareth and Amran. In 745, they would take over and rule Ifriqiya
as a Fihrid
family dominion. One of Habib's son's, Ismail ibn Habib al-Fihri, would forego the coast and family politics and head inland to organize campaigns against the desert-dwelling nomadic Berbers below the Sous valley, pushing into the region of what is now Western Sahara
and Mauritania
. It is reported by one of his commanders that, by 764, their expeditions had reached as far south as "the Nile" (the Senegal River
).
741
Year 741 was a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar. The denomination 741 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.- Europe :* Carloman, Pippin the Short and Grifo succeed...
) was an Arab military commander of the illustrious Fihrid (or 'Oqbid') family who played an important role in the early history of Ifriqiya
Ifriqiya
In medieval history, Ifriqiya or Ifriqiyah was the area comprising the coastal regions of what are today western Libya, Tunisia, and eastern Algeria. This area included what had been the Roman province of Africa, whose name it inherited....
(North Africa) and al-Andalus
Al-Andalus
Al-Andalus was the Arabic name given to a nation and territorial region also commonly referred to as Moorish Iberia. The name describes parts of the Iberian Peninsula and Septimania governed by Muslims , at various times in the period between 711 and 1492, although the territorial boundaries...
(Spain).
Biography
Habib ibn Abi Obeida al-Fihri was a grandson of Oqba ibn Nafi al-FihriUqba ibn Nafi
Uqba ibn Nafi was an Arab hero and general who was serving the Umayyad dynasty, in Amir Muavia and Yazid periods, who began the Islamic conquest of the Maghreb, including present-day Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Morocco in North Africa. He was the nephew of 'Amr ibn al-'As. Uqba is often surnamed...
, conqueror of North Africa
Umayyad conquest of North Africa
The Umayyad conquest of North Africa continued the century of rapid Arab Muslim expansion following the death of Muhammad in 632 CE. By 640 the Arabs controlled Mesopotamia, had invaded Armenia, and were concluding their conquest of Byzantine Syria. Damascus was the seat of the Umayyad caliphate....
). Habib was the scion of the Fihrids
Fihrids
The Fihrids were an illustrious Arab family and clan, prominent in North Africa and Muslim Iberia during the 8th century.The al-Fihri were originally an Arabian clan Banu Fihr attached to the Quraysh, the tribe of the Prophet...
, the leading Arab aristocratic family of Kairouan
Kairouan
Kairouan , also known as Kirwan or al-Qayrawan , is the capital of the Kairouan Governorate in Tunisia. Referred to as the Islamic Cultural Capital, it is a UNESCO World Heritage site. The city was founded by the Arabs around 670...
.
Habib ibn Abi Obeida participated in the 712 expedition of Ifriqiyan governor Musa ibn Nusair to conquer Spain
Umayyad conquest of Hispania
The Umayyad conquest of Hispania is the initial Islamic Ummayad Caliphate's conquest, between 711 and 718, of the Christian Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania, centered in the Iberian Peninsula, which was known to them under the Arabic name al-Andalus....
. In 714, Habib was appointed alongside Musa's own son Abd al-Aziz
Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa
Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa ibn Nusayr was the first governor of Al-Andalus, in modern-day Spain and Portugal. He was the son of Musa ibn Nusayr, the governor of Ifriqiya...
as vice-governor in Spain
Al-Andalus
Al-Andalus was the Arabic name given to a nation and territorial region also commonly referred to as Moorish Iberia. The name describes parts of the Iberian Peninsula and Septimania governed by Muslims , at various times in the period between 711 and 1492, although the territorial boundaries...
. Ibn Khaldun
Ibn Khaldun
Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun was an Arab Tunisian historiographer and historian who is often viewed as one of the forerunners of modern historiography, sociology and economics...
alleges it was Habib who received the order and carried out the assassination of Abd al-Aziz in 716, and personally carried the dead man's head to Damascus
Damascus
Damascus , commonly known in Syria as Al Sham , and as the City of Jasmine , is the capital and the second largest city of Syria after Aleppo, both are part of the country's 14 governorates. In addition to being one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, Damascus is a major...
, and presented it to the Caliph Sulayman
Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik
Sulayman bin Abd al-Malik was an Umayyad caliph who ruled from 715 until 717. His father was Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, and he was a younger brother of the previous caliph, al-Walid I.-Early years:...
Habib eventually returned to North Africa, and became one of the leading commanders of the Ifriqiya
Ifriqiya
In medieval history, Ifriqiya or Ifriqiyah was the area comprising the coastal regions of what are today western Libya, Tunisia, and eastern Algeria. This area included what had been the Roman province of Africa, whose name it inherited....
n army, particularly during the tenure of Obeid Allah ibn el-Habhab as governor of Ifriqiya
Ifriqiya
In medieval history, Ifriqiya or Ifriqiyah was the area comprising the coastal regions of what are today western Libya, Tunisia, and eastern Algeria. This area included what had been the Roman province of Africa, whose name it inherited....
from 734
734
Year 734 was a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar. The denomination 734 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.- Europe :* The Franks defeat the Frisians in the Battle...
. Obeid Allah, an inherent administrator, seemed to place great trust in Habib on military matters.
In 735, Habib ibn Abi Obeida led the Arab armies in the conquest of the Sous
Sous
The Sous or Souss is a region in southern Morocco. Geologically, it is the alluvial basin of the Oued Sous , separated from the Sahara by the Anti-Atlas Mountains...
valley of southern Morocco, bringing the Moroccan hinterlands more firmly within the Umayyad Caliphate.
In early 740, Habib headed a large Arab expedition to Sicily
Sicily
Sicily is a region of Italy, and is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Along with the surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature,...
, in what was possibly the first attempt at a full-scale invasion
History of Islam in southern Italy
The history of Islam in southern Italy begins with the Islamic conquest and subsequent rule of Sicily and Malta, a process that started in the 9th century. Islamic rule over Sicily was effective from 902, and the complete rule of the island lasted from 965 until 1061...
of the island (rather than a mere raid). Habib had a successful landing and laid a brief siege to Syracuse, securing its submission to tribute.
The Great Berber Revolt
Berber Revolt
The Great Berber Revolt of 739/740-743 AD took place during the reign of the Umayyad Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik and marked the first successful secession from the Arab caliphate...
in the western Maghreb Morocco
Morocco
Morocco , officially the Kingdom of Morocco , is a country located in North Africa. It has a population of more than 32 million and an area of 710,850 km², and also primarily administers the disputed region of the Western Sahara...
broke out during Habib's absence. Indeed, it seems the Berber leader Maysara al-Matghari
Maysara al-Matghari
Maysara , oft-surnamed al-Matghari or, in older arab sources, el-Hakir was a Berber rebel leader and original architect of the Great Berber Revolt that erupted in 739-40, until his deposition and death in the middle of 740.-Background:The exact biographical details of Maysara are...
delayed the start of the uprising until Habib had left with the bulk of the Ifriqiyan army for Sicily. Upon hearing the news, Habib aborted the Sicilian campaign, and shipped his army quickly back to Africa to help quell the uprising.
While waiting for Habib to return, Obeid Allah
Obeid Allah ibn al-Habhab
Obeid Allah ibn al-Habhab al-Maousili was an important Umayyad official in Egypt from 724 to 734, and subsequently Umayyad governor of Kairouan, Ifriqiya from 734 to 741...
assembled a cavalry-heavy column from the nobles of Kairouan
Kairouan
Kairouan , also known as Kirwan or al-Qayrawan , is the capital of the Kairouan Governorate in Tunisia. Referred to as the Islamic Cultural Capital, it is a UNESCO World Heritage site. The city was founded by the Arabs around 670...
, placing it under the command of Khalid ibn Abi Habib al-Fihri
Khalid ibn Abi Habib al-Fihri
Khalid ibn Abi Habib al-Fihri was an Arab military commander in North Africa during the Berber Revolt, who led the Arab army that was defeated at the Battle of the Nobles in late 740....
(possibly Habib's brother, see Fihrids
Fihrids
The Fihrids were an illustrious Arab family and clan, prominent in North Africa and Muslim Iberia during the 8th century.The al-Fihri were originally an Arabian clan Banu Fihr attached to the Quraysh, the tribe of the Prophet...
). This vanguard column was to hold a line in the outskirts of Tangiers, and keep the rebels in check, until Habib arrived with his Sicilian expeditionary army. But the Berber rebels did not wait. Under their new leader, Khalid ibn Hamid al-Zanati
Khalid ibn Hamid al-Zanati
Khalid ibn Hamid al-Zanati was a Zenata Berber chieftain and military commander during the Berber Revolt of the 740s against the Umayyads in the Maghreb....
, the Berbers attacked and annihilated the Arab column in what became known as the Battle of the Nobles
Battle of the Nobles
The Battle of the Nobles was an important confrontation in the Berber Revolt in c. 740 CE. It resulted in a major Berber victory over the Arabs near Tangier. During the battle, numerous Arab aristocrats were slaughtered, which led to the conflict being called the "Battle of the Nobles"...
in late October/November 740.
Habib ibn Abi Obeida's army arrived too late to prevent the massacre of the nobles. Unable to take on the Berbers by himself, he withdrew his army to Tlemcen
Tlemcen
Tlemcen is a town in Northwestern Algeria, and the capital of the province of the same name. It is located inland in the center of a region known for its olive plantations and vineyards...
to pick up reserves, only to find that city in disarray. The Umayyad garrison commander, Ibn al-Mughira, had, in a state of panic, initiated a series of indiscriminate massacres in an pre-emptive effort to quell an uprising, and ended up provoking that uprising himself. Bewildered and angry, Habib let his fury fall on Musa ibn Abi Khalid, an Umayyad captain who had bravely stayed behind collecting loyal forces. Accusing him of causing the uprising, Habib ordered Musa's hand and leg chopped off.
Collecting what remained of the Umayyad army in Ifriqiya, Habib ibn Abi Obeida entrenched himself in a defensive line in the vicinity of Tlemcen
Tlemcen
Tlemcen is a town in Northwestern Algeria, and the capital of the province of the same name. It is located inland in the center of a region known for its olive plantations and vineyards...
(or perhaps as far back as Tahert
Tahert
Tiaret is a large town in the central Algeria, that gives its name to the wider farming region of 'Wilaya de Tiaret' province. Both the town and region lie south-west of the capital of Algiers in the western region of the central highlands, in the Tell Atlas, and about from the Mediterranean coast...
) and appealed to Kairouan
Kairouan
Kairouan , also known as Kirwan or al-Qayrawan , is the capital of the Kairouan Governorate in Tunisia. Referred to as the Islamic Cultural Capital, it is a UNESCO World Heritage site. The city was founded by the Arabs around 670...
for reinforcements. His request was forwarded to Damascus
Damascus
Damascus , commonly known in Syria as Al Sham , and as the City of Jasmine , is the capital and the second largest city of Syria after Aleppo, both are part of the country's 14 governorates. In addition to being one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, Damascus is a major...
.
In the Spring of 741, Umayyad Caliph Hisham dispatched a new governor Kulthum ibn Iyad al-Qasi
Kulthum ibn Iyad al-Qasi
Kulthum ibn Iyad al-Qasi was an Umayyad governor of Kairouan, Ifriqiya for only a few months, from February to October, 741....
at the head of a fresh Arab army, drawn from the Syrian junds. The Syrian cavalry, under Kulthum's nephew, Balj ibn Bishr al-Qushayri
Balj ibn Bishr al-Qushayri
Balj ibn Bishr al-Qushayri ; was a Syrian Arab military commander in North Africa and Iberia, and briefly ruler of al-Andalus in 742....
, was the first to arrive in Kairouan
Kairouan
Kairouan , also known as Kirwan or al-Qayrawan , is the capital of the Kairouan Governorate in Tunisia. Referred to as the Islamic Cultural Capital, it is a UNESCO World Heritage site. The city was founded by the Arabs around 670...
and they imposed themselves on the city, billeting troops, requisitioning supplies, and threatening its inhabitants. The people of Kairouan
Kairouan
Kairouan , also known as Kirwan or al-Qayrawan , is the capital of the Kairouan Governorate in Tunisia. Referred to as the Islamic Cultural Capital, it is a UNESCO World Heritage site. The city was founded by the Arabs around 670...
appealed to Habib ibn Abi Obeida (then still encamped in the environs of Tlemcen, with some 40,000 Ifriqiyan troops) for assistance. Angered by the reports, Habib fired off a heated missive to Kulthum, threatening to turn his own army against the Syrians if he did not curb his nephew and put an end to the abuses in Kairouan.
The junction between the Syrian and Ifriqiyan armies near Tlemcen
Tlemcen
Tlemcen is a town in Northwestern Algeria, and the capital of the province of the same name. It is located inland in the center of a region known for its olive plantations and vineyards...
did not go any more smoothly. The Ifriqiyans were still smoldering about the Kairouan reports and offended by Syrian high-handedness, while the Syrians remained incensed at what they perceived to be ingratitude. Balj immediately brought up the issue of the threats Habib had made in his heated letter, and demanded that his uncle Kulthum ibn Iyad arrest the Ifriqiyan commander for treason. Habib in turn threatened to decamp unless Kulthum brought his nephew to order and treated the Ifriqiyans with more respect. The armies nearly came to blows. But by smooth diplomacy, Kulthum managed to patch over the quarrels and hold the armies together. But the mutual resentments would play a role in what followed.
The joint Syrian-Ifriqiyan army clashed with the Berber rebels at the Battle of Bagdoura
Battle of Bagdoura
The Battle of Bagdoura was a decisive confrontation in the Berber Revolt in late 741 CE. It was a follow-up to the Battle of the Nobles the previous year, and resulted in a major Berber victory over the Arabs by the Sebou river...
, by the Sebou river
Sebou River
Sebou is a river in northern Morocco. The river is 458 kilometres long and has an average water flow of 137 m3/s, which makes it the largest North African river by volume. The source is in the Middle Atlas mountains. It passes near the city of Fes and discharges to the Atlantic Ocean in Mehdia...
(near modern Fez
Fes
Fes or Fez is the second largest city of Morocco, after Casablanca, with a population of approximately 1 million . It is the capital of the Fès-Boulemane region....
) in October, 741
741
Year 741 was a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar. The denomination 741 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.- Europe :* Carloman, Pippin the Short and Grifo succeed...
. In setting up the battle, Kulthum disdained Habib ibn Abi Obeida's experience and advice on how to fight the Berbers - 'foot for foot, horse for horse' - and instead sent the Arab cavalry forth against the Berber foot. Berber slingers and missile troops quickly dehorsed and separated them, depriving the Arabs of their best asset. The Berbers then fell upon the Arab infantry, overwhelming them with numbers and targeting their commanders. The Ifriqiyan column was the first to be hit, and Habib ibn Abi Obeida among the first to be killed.
Once Habib was known to have fallen, the Ifriqiyan troops felt no compulsion to remain in the field with the hateful Syrians, and quickly broke ranks and fled, leaving the Syrians to fight alone. The defeat turned into a rout. Some two-thirds of the Arab forces, including the governor Kulthum, were either killed or captured by the Berbers.
The Ifriqiyan remnant fled in a scattered manner back to Kairouan
Kairouan
Kairouan , also known as Kirwan or al-Qayrawan , is the capital of the Kairouan Governorate in Tunisia. Referred to as the Islamic Cultural Capital, it is a UNESCO World Heritage site. The city was founded by the Arabs around 670...
, while the remainder of the Syrian army, held together by Balj ibn Bishr
Balj ibn Bishr al-Qushayri
Balj ibn Bishr al-Qushayri ; was a Syrian Arab military commander in North Africa and Iberia, and briefly ruler of al-Andalus in 742....
, scampered to Ceuta
Ceuta
Ceuta is an autonomous city of Spain and an exclave located on the north coast of North Africa surrounded by Morocco. Separated from the Iberian peninsula by the Strait of Gibraltar, Ceuta lies on the border of the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. Ceuta along with the other Spanish...
and secured passage over to al-Andalus
Al-Andalus
Al-Andalus was the Arabic name given to a nation and territorial region also commonly referred to as Moorish Iberia. The name describes parts of the Iberian Peninsula and Septimania governed by Muslims , at various times in the period between 711 and 1492, although the territorial boundaries...
. Habib's eldest son, Abd al-Rahman ibn Habib al-Fihri survived the battle and accompanied the Syrians to Spain.
Habib was survived by several sons, notably Abd al-Rahman, Ilyas
Ilyas ibn Habib al-Fihri
Il-Yas ibn Habib al-Fihri was an Arab noble of the Oqbid or Fihrid family, and briefly ruler of Ifriqiya in 755.Ilyas ibn Habib was a son of the Ifriqiyan military commander Habib ibn Abi Obeida al-Fihri...
, Abd al-Wareth and Amran. In 745, they would take over and rule Ifriqiya
Ifriqiya
In medieval history, Ifriqiya or Ifriqiyah was the area comprising the coastal regions of what are today western Libya, Tunisia, and eastern Algeria. This area included what had been the Roman province of Africa, whose name it inherited....
as a Fihrid
Fihrids
The Fihrids were an illustrious Arab family and clan, prominent in North Africa and Muslim Iberia during the 8th century.The al-Fihri were originally an Arabian clan Banu Fihr attached to the Quraysh, the tribe of the Prophet...
family dominion. One of Habib's son's, Ismail ibn Habib al-Fihri, would forego the coast and family politics and head inland to organize campaigns against the desert-dwelling nomadic Berbers below the Sous valley, pushing into the region of what is now Western Sahara
Western Sahara
Western Sahara is a disputed territory in North Africa, bordered by Morocco to the north, Algeria to the northeast, Mauritania to the east and south, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. Its surface area amounts to . It is one of the most sparsely populated territories in the world, mainly...
and Mauritania
Mauritania
Mauritania is a country in the Maghreb and West Africa. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean in the west, by Western Sahara in the north, by Algeria in the northeast, by Mali in the east and southeast, and by Senegal in the southwest...
. It is reported by one of his commanders that, by 764, their expeditions had reached as far south as "the Nile" (the Senegal River
Sénégal River
The Sénégal River is a long river in West Africa that forms the border between Senegal and Mauritania.The Sénégal's headwaters are the Semefé and Bafing rivers which both originate in Guinea; they form a small part of the Guinean-Malian border before coming together at Bafoulabé in Mali...
).
Sources
- Ibn Khaldun, Histoire des Berbères et des dynasties musulmanes de l'Afrique, 1852 trans., Algiers.
- Hrbek, Ivan (1992), Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century, 3rd, University of California Press
- Julien, Charles-André, Histoire de l'Afrique du Nord, des origines à 1830, édition originale 1931, réédition Payot, Paris, 1961
- Abd al-Wahid Dhannun Taha, The Muslim conquest and settlement of North Africa and Spain, 1989, London, Routledge.
- Blankinship, Khalid Yahya (1994). The End of the Jihad State: The Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd Al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads. SUNY Press. ISBN 0-7914-1827-8
- History of early Islamic TunisiaHistory of early Islamic TunisiaThe History of early Islamic Tunisia opens with the arrival of the Arabs who brought their language and the religion of Islam, and its calendar. The Arab conquest followed strategy designed by the Umayyad Caliphate regarding ist long-term conflict with the Byzantine Empire...
- History of medieval TunisiaHistory of medieval TunisiaThe medieval era opens with the commencement of a process that would return Ifriqiya, i.e., Tunisia, and the entire Maghrib to local Berber rule. The precipitating cause was the departure of the Shia Fatimid Caliphate to their newly conquered territories in Egypt. To govern Ifriqiya in their stead,...