Maysara al-Matghari
Encyclopedia
Maysara oft-surnamed al-Matghari (a Berber
tribe) or, in older arab sources, el-Hakir ('the Ignoble') (?-September/October 740) was a Berber rebel leader and original architect of the Great Berber Revolt that erupted in 739-40, until his deposition and death in the middle of 740.
or Tangiers, possibly a water-carrier in the caliphal army. Chronicles routinely refer to him by the unflattering label of al-Hakir, 'the Ignoble' or 'the Vile'. Ibn Khaldun
, however, was probably closer to the truth in proposing that his origins were perhaps not so humble, that Maysara was probably a significant chieftain or sheikh
of the Berber Matghara tribe. Al-Tabari reports that Maysara had even headed a Berber delegation to Damascus
to present the Berber complaints before the Caliph Hisham.
And the complaints were many. The Berbers had long resented the second-class status accorded to them by the ruling Arab military caste. Berber Muslims were intermittently subjected to extraordinary taxation and slave-tributes, contrary to Islamic law
. As a result, many Berbers grew receptive to puritan Kharijite activists, particularly those of the Sufri
te sect, that had begun arriving in the Maghreb
, preaching a new political order in which all Muslims would treated without regard for ethnicity or tribal status. Maysara's Matghara tribe had been particularly taken up with Sufri
te influence.
of Ifriqiya
ratcheted up his fiscal exactions. His regional deputies, notably Omar ibn al-Moradi, governor of Tangiers, implemented some inventive and highly oppressive schemes to extract more revenues from the Berbers.
By 739 or so, the main Berber tribes under Omar's jurisdiction in western Morocco - principally the Gomara
, Berghwata and Miknasa
-- decided they had enough and prepared for rebellion. They formed an alliance and elected the Matghara chieftain Maysara to lead them. It was not a spontaneous uprising. Maysara and the Berber commanders seemed to have been careful enough to wait until the bulk of the Ifriqiyan army had left North Africa on an expedition to Sicily
before springing into action.
In early 740, the Ifriqiyan army safely gone, the Great Berber Revolt
finally began. Maysara assembled his coalition of Berber armies, heads shaven in the Kharajite fashion, Qur'an
s hanging from their spears, and led them bearing down on Tangiers. The city quickly fell into their hands and the hated governor Omar al-Moradi was put to death.
Maysara placed the Berber garrison in Tangiers under the command of a converted Christian, Abd al-Allah al-Hodeij al-Ifriqi, then proceed to sweep down western Morocco, overwhelming Umayyad garrisons clear down to the Sous
valley. In a very short time, the whole length of western Morocco, from the Straits of Gibraltar to the Anti-Atlas
, were in the hands of Maysara's rebels.
('Commander of the Faithful', or 'Caliph
'). This was probably the first time that a non-Arab laid claim to the supreme Muslim title. Indeed, it might have been the first time anyone not connected by blood to the Prophet
's Quraish tribe, had dared lay such a claim. To orthodox Muslims of the time, the idea of a 'Berber caliph' must have seemed like an absurdity. The rumor that Maysara was a lowly 'water-carrier' probably got started around this, if only to make the caliphal pretension seem even more self-aggrandizingly ridiculous, and consequently the entire rebellion misguided.
Because this step seemed to open the rebels to mockery, some have wondered whether the story of Maysara taking up the caliphal title was not fabricated, from start to finish, by Umayyad propagandists. However, one needs to remember that this rebellion was fired up and led by Sufri
te Kharijites
. And one of the central tenets of Kharijite ideology is precisely that the caliphal title is open to any good pious Muslim, regardless of dynastic or tribal qualifications. Moreover, one must keep in mind this was, at least on the ideological plane, a Muslim uprising, open to all true Muslims, and not a Berber liberation movement. Consequently, Maysara, as the commander of the true Muslims, could have no other title but 'caliph
'.
immediately recalled the Ifriqiyan army back from Sicily. While awaiting their return, Obeid Allah assembled and dispatched an Arab column from Kairouan
, under Khalid ibn Abi Habib al-Fihri
, towards Tangiers, to keep the rebels in check and prevent them from moving east into the middle Maghreb.
This column encountered Maysara's Berber armies somewhere south of Tangiers. The Ifriqiyan force was composed largely of the well-equipped and well-trained noble elite of Kairouan
and the Berber rebel armies were not much beyond a foot rabble, but the Berbers outnumbered the Arabs several times over, perhaps as much as ten-to-one. Nonetheless, after a brief skirmish, Maysara ordered the Berber armies to fall back and retreat into Tangiers. The Arab column, following their instructions, did not give pursuit, but held a line south of Tangiers, awaiting the reinforcements from the Sicilian expedition.
In this interlude, the rebel commanders deposed Maysara and, shortly after, executed him. A Zenata Berber chieftain, Khalid ibn Hamid al-Zanati
, was elected to replace him.
Most Arab chroniclers (e.g. Ibn Khaldun
) argue that Maysara was deposed on account of cowardice, for having hastily ordered a retreat after the skirmish with the Arab column. It has also been said that the puritan Sufri
te preachers that accompanied the Beber rebel armies as religious commissars found some flaw in the piety of his character, and declared him unfit to be caliph.
But it may also simply be that politics and inter-tribal jealousies played a role. The chieftains of the Zenata tribes of eastern Morocco, who had belatedly begun to adhere to the rebellion, may have felt that the leadership of the Berber rebellion should pass to them. After all, Maysara's original coalition was composed of Ghomara
, Berghwata and Miknasa
Berbers of western Morocco. That fight had now been won and the frontline had now moved. Any future campaigns against the Arabs were going to be fought in the territories of the Zenata
tribes of the east. And if war is to be conducted in Zenata lands, then armies should be led by Zenata chieftains.
All this, of course, is speculative. But inter-tribal rivalry was rife among the Berbers
in the 8th C. Maghreb
. And it certainly seems that after Maysara's fall, the leadership of the Berber rebellion gravitated rather quickly and firmly into the hands of the eastern Zenata chieftains and their Sufri
te preachers. This is not to say that accusations of cowardice and impiety weren't enough to depose Maysara, but perhaps those accusations had some political calculation behind them.
The Zenata chieftains indeed delivered two great and notable victories over the Arabs - at the Battle of the Nobles
in late 740 and again at Battle of Bagdoura
in late 741. And that certainly gave them a claim of dominance over the alliance. That the original coalition partners - e.g. the Berghwata - were the first to break away from Berber rebel alliance seems an indicator that the post-Maysara state of affairs was not to their liking.
As such, Maysara seems to play something of a tragic role in the Berber Revolt
, but a familiar role that has been played out in so many other revolutions - the Desmoullins
that rallies the masses and storms the first citadels, but is gotten rid of once the Robespierre
s take over.
Berber people
Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. They are continuously distributed from the Atlantic to the Siwa oasis, in Egypt, and from the Mediterranean to the Niger River. Historically they spoke the Berber language or varieties of it, which together form a branch...
tribe) or, in older arab sources, el-Hakir ('the Ignoble') (?-September/October 740) was a Berber rebel leader and original architect of the Great Berber Revolt that erupted in 739-40, until his deposition and death in the middle of 740.
Background
The exact biographical details of Maysara are obscure, and made more complicated by what are likely scurrilous stories circulated by his enemies. Chroniclers have recorded allegations that Maysara was a low-born Berber water-seller in KairouanKairouan
Kairouan , also known as Kirwan or al-Qayrawan , is the capital of the Kairouan Governorate in Tunisia. Referred to as the Islamic Cultural Capital, it is a UNESCO World Heritage site. The city was founded by the Arabs around 670...
or Tangiers, possibly a water-carrier in the caliphal army. Chronicles routinely refer to him by the unflattering label of al-Hakir, 'the Ignoble' or 'the Vile'. Ibn Khaldun
Ibn Khaldun
Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun was an Arab Tunisian historiographer and historian who is often viewed as one of the forerunners of modern historiography, sociology and economics...
, however, was probably closer to the truth in proposing that his origins were perhaps not so humble, that Maysara was probably a significant chieftain or sheikh
Sheikh
Not to be confused with sikhSheikh — also spelled Sheik or Shaikh, or transliterated as Shaykh — is an honorific in the Arabic language that literally means "elder" and carries the meaning "leader and/or governor"...
of the Berber Matghara tribe. Al-Tabari reports that Maysara had even headed a Berber delegation to Damascus
Damascus
Damascus , commonly known in Syria as Al Sham , and as the City of Jasmine , is the capital and the second largest city of Syria after Aleppo, both are part of the country's 14 governorates. In addition to being one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, Damascus is a major...
to present the Berber complaints before the Caliph Hisham.
And the complaints were many. The Berbers had long resented the second-class status accorded to them by the ruling Arab military caste. Berber Muslims were intermittently subjected to extraordinary taxation and slave-tributes, contrary to Islamic law
Sharia
Sharia law, is the moral code and religious law of Islam. Sharia is derived from two primary sources of Islamic law: the precepts set forth in the Quran, and the example set by the Islamic prophet Muhammad in the Sunnah. Fiqh jurisprudence interprets and extends the application of sharia to...
. As a result, many Berbers grew receptive to puritan Kharijite activists, particularly those of the Sufri
Sufri
The Sufris were a Khariji sect of Islam that existed in the 7th and 8th centuries. They established the Midrarid state at Sijilmassa.In Algeria , the Banu Ifran were Sufri Berbers who opposed Umayyad, Abbasids and Fatimid rule, most notably under resistance movements led by Abu Qurra and Abu...
te sect, that had begun arriving in the Maghreb
Maghreb
The Maghreb is the region of Northwest Africa, west of Egypt. It includes five countries: Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Mauritania and the disputed territory of Western Sahara...
, preaching a new political order in which all Muslims would treated without regard for ethnicity or tribal status. Maysara's Matghara tribe had been particularly taken up with Sufri
Sufri
The Sufris were a Khariji sect of Islam that existed in the 7th and 8th centuries. They established the Midrarid state at Sijilmassa.In Algeria , the Banu Ifran were Sufri Berbers who opposed Umayyad, Abbasids and Fatimid rule, most notably under resistance movements led by Abu Qurra and Abu...
te influence.
The Revolt
In the late 730s, the new Umayyad governor Obeid Allah ibn al-HabhabObeid Allah ibn al-Habhab
Obeid Allah ibn al-Habhab al-Maousili was an important Umayyad official in Egypt from 724 to 734, and subsequently Umayyad governor of Kairouan, Ifriqiya from 734 to 741...
of Ifriqiya
Ifriqiya
In medieval history, Ifriqiya or Ifriqiyah was the area comprising the coastal regions of what are today western Libya, Tunisia, and eastern Algeria. This area included what had been the Roman province of Africa, whose name it inherited....
ratcheted up his fiscal exactions. His regional deputies, notably Omar ibn al-Moradi, governor of Tangiers, implemented some inventive and highly oppressive schemes to extract more revenues from the Berbers.
By 739 or so, the main Berber tribes under Omar's jurisdiction in western Morocco - principally the Gomara
Gomara
Gomara may refer to:* Gomara, a Cimmerian city* Gómara, Soria, a municipality of Soria province, Spain* Francisco López de Gómara, 16th century Spanish historian and chronicler of the expedition of Hernán Cortés...
, Berghwata and Miknasa
Miknasa
The Miknasa were a Berber tribe in Morocco and western Algeria.The Miknasa Berbers originated in southern Tunisia, but migrated westwards into central Morocco and western Algeria in pre-Islamic times. The modern Moroccan city of Meknes bears witness to their presence.After defeat by the Muslims...
-- decided they had enough and prepared for rebellion. They formed an alliance and elected the Matghara chieftain Maysara to lead them. It was not a spontaneous uprising. Maysara and the Berber commanders seemed to have been careful enough to wait until the bulk of the Ifriqiyan army had left North Africa on an expedition to Sicily
Sicily
Sicily is a region of Italy, and is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Along with the surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature,...
before springing into action.
In early 740, the Ifriqiyan army safely gone, the Great Berber Revolt
Berber Revolt
The Great Berber Revolt of 739/740-743 AD took place during the reign of the Umayyad Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik and marked the first successful secession from the Arab caliphate...
finally began. Maysara assembled his coalition of Berber armies, heads shaven in the Kharajite fashion, Qur'an
Qur'an
The Quran , also transliterated Qur'an, Koran, Alcoran, Qur’ān, Coran, Kuran, and al-Qur’ān, is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God . It is regarded widely as the finest piece of literature in the Arabic language...
s hanging from their spears, and led them bearing down on Tangiers. The city quickly fell into their hands and the hated governor Omar al-Moradi was put to death.
Maysara placed the Berber garrison in Tangiers under the command of a converted Christian, Abd al-Allah al-Hodeij al-Ifriqi, then proceed to sweep down western Morocco, overwhelming Umayyad garrisons clear down to the Sous
Sous
The Sous or Souss is a region in southern Morocco. Geologically, it is the alluvial basin of the Oued Sous , separated from the Sahara by the Anti-Atlas Mountains...
valley. In a very short time, the whole length of western Morocco, from the Straits of Gibraltar to the Anti-Atlas
Anti-Atlas
The Anti-Atlas or Lesser Atlas or Little Atlas, is a mountain range in Morocco, a part of the Atlas mountains in the northwest of Africa. The Anti-Atlas extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the southwest toward the northeast, to the heights of Ouarzazate and further east to the city of Tafilalt,...
, were in the hands of Maysara's rebels.
The Berber Caliph
After his victory at Tangiers (or perhaps a little earlier), it is said that Maysara took up the title of amir al-mu'mininCaliph
The Caliph is the head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the ruler of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah. It is a transcribed version of the Arabic word which means "successor" or "representative"...
('Commander of the Faithful', or 'Caliph
Caliph
The Caliph is the head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the ruler of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah. It is a transcribed version of the Arabic word which means "successor" or "representative"...
'). This was probably the first time that a non-Arab laid claim to the supreme Muslim title. Indeed, it might have been the first time anyone not connected by blood to the Prophet
Muhammad
Muhammad |ligature]] at U+FDF4 ;Arabic pronunciation varies regionally; the first vowel ranges from ~~; the second and the last vowel: ~~~. There are dialects which have no stress. In Egypt, it is pronounced not in religious contexts...
's Quraish tribe, had dared lay such a claim. To orthodox Muslims of the time, the idea of a 'Berber caliph' must have seemed like an absurdity. The rumor that Maysara was a lowly 'water-carrier' probably got started around this, if only to make the caliphal pretension seem even more self-aggrandizingly ridiculous, and consequently the entire rebellion misguided.
Because this step seemed to open the rebels to mockery, some have wondered whether the story of Maysara taking up the caliphal title was not fabricated, from start to finish, by Umayyad propagandists. However, one needs to remember that this rebellion was fired up and led by Sufri
Sufri
The Sufris were a Khariji sect of Islam that existed in the 7th and 8th centuries. They established the Midrarid state at Sijilmassa.In Algeria , the Banu Ifran were Sufri Berbers who opposed Umayyad, Abbasids and Fatimid rule, most notably under resistance movements led by Abu Qurra and Abu...
te Kharijites
Kharijites
Kharijites is a general term embracing various Muslims who, while initially supporting the authority of the final Rashidun Caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib, the son-in-law and cousin of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, then later rejected his leadership...
. And one of the central tenets of Kharijite ideology is precisely that the caliphal title is open to any good pious Muslim, regardless of dynastic or tribal qualifications. Moreover, one must keep in mind this was, at least on the ideological plane, a Muslim uprising, open to all true Muslims, and not a Berber liberation movement. Consequently, Maysara, as the commander of the true Muslims, could have no other title but 'caliph
Caliph
The Caliph is the head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the ruler of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah. It is a transcribed version of the Arabic word which means "successor" or "representative"...
'.
The Fall of Maysara
Maysara's star dimmed not long after this. The Umayyad governor Obeid Allah ibn al-HabhabObeid Allah ibn al-Habhab
Obeid Allah ibn al-Habhab al-Maousili was an important Umayyad official in Egypt from 724 to 734, and subsequently Umayyad governor of Kairouan, Ifriqiya from 734 to 741...
immediately recalled the Ifriqiyan army back from Sicily. While awaiting their return, Obeid Allah assembled and dispatched an Arab column from Kairouan
Kairouan
Kairouan , also known as Kirwan or al-Qayrawan , is the capital of the Kairouan Governorate in Tunisia. Referred to as the Islamic Cultural Capital, it is a UNESCO World Heritage site. The city was founded by the Arabs around 670...
, under Khalid ibn Abi Habib al-Fihri
Khalid ibn Abi Habib al-Fihri
Khalid ibn Abi Habib al-Fihri was an Arab military commander in North Africa during the Berber Revolt, who led the Arab army that was defeated at the Battle of the Nobles in late 740....
, towards Tangiers, to keep the rebels in check and prevent them from moving east into the middle Maghreb.
This column encountered Maysara's Berber armies somewhere south of Tangiers. The Ifriqiyan force was composed largely of the well-equipped and well-trained noble elite of Kairouan
Kairouan
Kairouan , also known as Kirwan or al-Qayrawan , is the capital of the Kairouan Governorate in Tunisia. Referred to as the Islamic Cultural Capital, it is a UNESCO World Heritage site. The city was founded by the Arabs around 670...
and the Berber rebel armies were not much beyond a foot rabble, but the Berbers outnumbered the Arabs several times over, perhaps as much as ten-to-one. Nonetheless, after a brief skirmish, Maysara ordered the Berber armies to fall back and retreat into Tangiers. The Arab column, following their instructions, did not give pursuit, but held a line south of Tangiers, awaiting the reinforcements from the Sicilian expedition.
In this interlude, the rebel commanders deposed Maysara and, shortly after, executed him. A Zenata Berber chieftain, Khalid ibn Hamid al-Zanati
Khalid ibn Hamid al-Zanati
Khalid ibn Hamid al-Zanati was a Zenata Berber chieftain and military commander during the Berber Revolt of the 740s against the Umayyads in the Maghreb....
, was elected to replace him.
Most Arab chroniclers (e.g. Ibn Khaldun
Ibn Khaldun
Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun was an Arab Tunisian historiographer and historian who is often viewed as one of the forerunners of modern historiography, sociology and economics...
) argue that Maysara was deposed on account of cowardice, for having hastily ordered a retreat after the skirmish with the Arab column. It has also been said that the puritan Sufri
Sufri
The Sufris were a Khariji sect of Islam that existed in the 7th and 8th centuries. They established the Midrarid state at Sijilmassa.In Algeria , the Banu Ifran were Sufri Berbers who opposed Umayyad, Abbasids and Fatimid rule, most notably under resistance movements led by Abu Qurra and Abu...
te preachers that accompanied the Beber rebel armies as religious commissars found some flaw in the piety of his character, and declared him unfit to be caliph.
But it may also simply be that politics and inter-tribal jealousies played a role. The chieftains of the Zenata tribes of eastern Morocco, who had belatedly begun to adhere to the rebellion, may have felt that the leadership of the Berber rebellion should pass to them. After all, Maysara's original coalition was composed of Ghomara
Ghomara
The Ghomara are an originally Berber group in northern Morocco, living between the rivers Oued Laou and Ouringa, north of Chefchaouen and south of Tetouan, just west of the Rif. The river Tiguisas runs through their territory...
, Berghwata and Miknasa
Miknasa
The Miknasa were a Berber tribe in Morocco and western Algeria.The Miknasa Berbers originated in southern Tunisia, but migrated westwards into central Morocco and western Algeria in pre-Islamic times. The modern Moroccan city of Meknes bears witness to their presence.After defeat by the Muslims...
Berbers of western Morocco. That fight had now been won and the frontline had now moved. Any future campaigns against the Arabs were going to be fought in the territories of the Zenata
Zenata
Zenata were an ethnic group of North Africa, who were technically an Eastern Berber group and who are found in Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco....
tribes of the east. And if war is to be conducted in Zenata lands, then armies should be led by Zenata chieftains.
All this, of course, is speculative. But inter-tribal rivalry was rife among the Berbers
Berber people
Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. They are continuously distributed from the Atlantic to the Siwa oasis, in Egypt, and from the Mediterranean to the Niger River. Historically they spoke the Berber language or varieties of it, which together form a branch...
in the 8th C. Maghreb
Maghreb
The Maghreb is the region of Northwest Africa, west of Egypt. It includes five countries: Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Mauritania and the disputed territory of Western Sahara...
. And it certainly seems that after Maysara's fall, the leadership of the Berber rebellion gravitated rather quickly and firmly into the hands of the eastern Zenata chieftains and their Sufri
Sufri
The Sufris were a Khariji sect of Islam that existed in the 7th and 8th centuries. They established the Midrarid state at Sijilmassa.In Algeria , the Banu Ifran were Sufri Berbers who opposed Umayyad, Abbasids and Fatimid rule, most notably under resistance movements led by Abu Qurra and Abu...
te preachers. This is not to say that accusations of cowardice and impiety weren't enough to depose Maysara, but perhaps those accusations had some political calculation behind them.
The Zenata chieftains indeed delivered two great and notable victories over the Arabs - at the Battle of the Nobles
Battle of the Nobles
The Battle of the Nobles was an important confrontation in the Berber Revolt in c. 740 CE. It resulted in a major Berber victory over the Arabs near Tangier. During the battle, numerous Arab aristocrats were slaughtered, which led to the conflict being called the "Battle of the Nobles"...
in late 740 and again at Battle of Bagdoura
Battle of Bagdoura
The Battle of Bagdoura was a decisive confrontation in the Berber Revolt in late 741 CE. It was a follow-up to the Battle of the Nobles the previous year, and resulted in a major Berber victory over the Arabs by the Sebou river...
in late 741. And that certainly gave them a claim of dominance over the alliance. That the original coalition partners - e.g. the Berghwata - were the first to break away from Berber rebel alliance seems an indicator that the post-Maysara state of affairs was not to their liking.
As such, Maysara seems to play something of a tragic role in the Berber Revolt
Berber Revolt
The Great Berber Revolt of 739/740-743 AD took place during the reign of the Umayyad Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik and marked the first successful secession from the Arab caliphate...
, but a familiar role that has been played out in so many other revolutions - the Desmoullins
Camille Desmoulins
Lucie Simplice Camille Benoît Desmoulins was a journalist and politician who played an important role in the French Revolution. He was a childhood friend of Maximilien Robespierre and a close friend and political ally of Georges Danton, who were influential figures in the French Revolution.-Early...
that rallies the masses and storms the first citadels, but is gotten rid of once the Robespierre
Maximilien Robespierre
Maximilien François Marie Isidore de Robespierre is one of the best-known and most influential figures of the French Revolution. He largely dominated the Committee of Public Safety and was instrumental in the period of the Revolution commonly known as the Reign of Terror, which ended with his...
s take over.
Sources
- Blankinship, Khalid Yahya (1994). The End of the Jihad State: The Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd Al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads. SUNY Press. ISBN 0-7914-1827-8
- Ibn Khaldun (1852 transl.) Histoire des Berbères et des dynasties musulmanes de l'Afrique, Algiers.
- Julien, Charles-André, Histoire de l'Afrique du Nord, des origines à 1830, édition originale 1931, réédition Payot, Paris, 1961
- Taha, Abd al-Wahid Dhannun (1989) The Muslim conquest and settlement of North Africa and Spain, London, Routledge.