Golasecca culture
Encyclopedia
Celt
The Celts were a diverse group of tribal societies in Iron Age and Roman-era Europe who spoke Celtic languages.The earliest archaeological culture commonly accepted as Celtic, or rather Proto-Celtic, was the central European Hallstatt culture , named for the rich grave finds in Hallstatt, Austria....
ic culture in northern Italy
Northern Italy
Northern Italy is a wide cultural, historical and geographical definition, without any administrative usage, used to indicate the northern part of the Italian state, also referred as Settentrione or Alta Italia...
http://nuke.costumilombardi.it/Portals/0/k%C3%A0%20cartina%20Golasecca%20297.jpg, whose type-site has been excavated at Golasecca
Golasecca
Golasecca is a town and comune in the province of Varese, Lombardy .It has given its name to the Golasecca culture, a prehistoric civilization who lived in the Ticino River area from the Bronze Age until the 1st century BC....
in the province of Varese
Province of Varese
The Province of Varese is a province in the Lombardy region of Italy. Its capital is the city of Varese but its largest city is Busto Arsizio....
, Lombardy
Lombardy
Lombardy is one of the 20 regions of Italy. The capital is Milan. One-sixth of Italy's population lives in Lombardy and about one fifth of Italy's GDP is produced in this region, making it the most populous and richest region in the country and one of the richest in the whole of Europe...
.
Archeological sources
The name Golasecca culture comes from the first findings that were discovered from excavations conducted from 1822, at several locations in the Comune of GolaseccaGolasecca
Golasecca is a town and comune in the province of Varese, Lombardy .It has given its name to the Golasecca culture, a prehistoric civilization who lived in the Ticino River area from the Bronze Age until the 1st century BC....
, by the antiquarian abate Father Giovanni Battista Giani (1788–1857), who identified the clearly non-Roman burials as remains of the Battle of Ticinus
Battle of Ticinus
The Battle of Ticinus was a battle of the Second Punic War fought between the Carthaginian forces of Hannibal and the Romans under Publius Cornelius Scipio in November 218 BC. The battle took place in the flat country of Pavia county on the right bank of the Ticino River not far north from its...
of 218 BCE between Hannibal and Scipio Africanus
Scipio Africanus
Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus , also known as Scipio Africanus and Scipio the Elder, was a general in the Second Punic War and statesman of the Roman Republic...
.
In 1865 Louis Laurent Gabriel de Mortillet
Louis Laurent Gabriel de Mortillet
Louis Laurent Gabriel de Mortillet , French anthropologist, was born at Meylan, Isère.-Biography:He was educated at the Jesuit college of Chambéry and at the Paris Conservatoire. Becoming in 1847 proprietor of La Revue indépendante, he was implicated in the Revolution of 1848 and sentenced to two...
, a founder of European archaeology, rightly assigned the same tombs to a pre-Roman culture of the early Iron Age
Iron Age
The Iron Age is the archaeological period generally occurring after the Bronze Age, marked by the prevalent use of iron. The early period of the age is characterized by the widespread use of iron or steel. The adoption of such material coincided with other changes in society, including differing...
, with a likely Celt
Celt
The Celts were a diverse group of tribal societies in Iron Age and Roman-era Europe who spoke Celtic languages.The earliest archaeological culture commonly accepted as Celtic, or rather Proto-Celtic, was the central European Hallstatt culture , named for the rich grave finds in Hallstatt, Austria....
ic substratum given the similarities with the Hallstatt Culture
Hallstatt culture
The Hallstatt culture was the predominant Central European culture from the 8th to 6th centuries BC , developing out of the Urnfield culture of the 12th century BC and followed in much of Central Europe by the La Tène culture.By the 6th century BC, the Hallstatt culture extended for some...
. He made several trips there bringing back in France part of the Abbot
Abbot
The word abbot, meaning father, is a title given to the head of a monastery in various traditions, including Christianity. The office may also be given as an honorary title to a clergyman who is not actually the head of a monastery...
Giani's collection to enrich the Musée des Antiquités nationales
National Archaeological Museum (France)
The Musée d'Archéologie nationale is a major French archeology museum, covering pre-historic times to the Merovingian period. It was named Musée des Antiquités nationales until 2005. It is located in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye in Saint-Germain-en-Laye, in the département of Yvelines,...
collections, of which he was Vice-curator.
The excavations spread over various sites throughout the late 19th century, Alexandre Bertrand
Alexandre Bertrand
Alexandre Louis Joseph Bertrand was a French archaeologist who was a native of Rennes. He was the son of physician Alexandre Jacques François Bertrand and elder brother to mathematician Joseph Louis François Bertrand .Bertrand studied at Ecole Normale Superieure de la rue d'Ulm, and after a...
, also curator of the Musée des Antiquités nationales in turn went on site in 1873 and conducted some excavations by himself. With the collaboration of french, italian and german archaeologists meeting at the Archaeological Congress of Stockholm
Stockholm
Stockholm is the capital and the largest city of Sweden and constitutes the most populated urban area in Scandinavia. Stockholm is the most populous city in Sweden, with a population of 851,155 in the municipality , 1.37 million in the urban area , and around 2.1 million in the metropolitan area...
in 1874, the timing of the Culture of Golasecca became clearer, divided into three periods from 900 to 380 BCE. It ended with the Gallic
Gauls
The Gauls were a Celtic people living in Gaul, the region roughly corresponding to what is now France, Belgium, Switzerland and Northern Italy, from the Iron Age through the Roman period. They mostly spoke the Continental Celtic language called Gaulish....
invasion of the Po Valley
Po Valley
The Po Valley, Po Plain, Plain of the Po, or Padan Plain is a major geographical feature of Italy. It extends approximately in an east-west direction, with an area of 46,000 km² including its Venetic extension not actually related to the Po River basin; it runs from the Western Alps to the...
in 388 BCE.
The modern assessment of Golasecca culture is derived from the campaigns of 1965-69 on Monsorino, directed by A. Mira Bonomi. More recent chronological studies have been produced by Raffaele De Marinis.
History
Lombardy
Lombardy is one of the 20 regions of Italy. The capital is Milan. One-sixth of Italy's population lives in Lombardy and about one fifth of Italy's GDP is produced in this region, making it the most populous and richest region in the country and one of the richest in the whole of Europe...
, eastern Piedmont
Piedmont
Piedmont is one of the 20 regions of Italy. It has an area of 25,402 square kilometres and a population of about 4.4 million. The capital of Piedmont is Turin. The main local language is Piedmontese. Occitan is also spoken by a minority in the Occitan Valleys situated in the Provinces of...
, the Canton Ticino and Val Mesolcina
Val Mesolcina
The Misox is an alpine valley of the Grisons, Switzerland, stretching from the San Bernardino Pass to Grono where it joins the Calanca Valley...
, in a territory stretching north of the Po River
Po River
The Po |Ligurian]]: Bodincus or Bodencus) is a river that flows either or – considering the length of the Maira, a right bank tributary – eastward across northern Italy, from a spring seeping from a stony hillside at Pian del Re, a flat place at the head of the Val Po under the northwest face...
to sub-alpine zones, between the course of the Serio
Serio River
The Serio, in Lombard Sère, is an Italian river that flows entirely within Lombardy, crossing the provinces of Bergamo and Cremona. It is 124 kilometers long and it flows into the Adda at Bocca di Serio, to the south of Crema....
to the east and the Sesia
Sesia River
The Sesia is a river in north-western Italy, tributary to the Po. Its sources are the glaciers of Monte Rosa at the border with Switzerland. It flows through the Alpine valley Valsesia and the towns Varallo Sesia, Quarona, Borgosesia and Vercelli...
to the west http://img641.imageshack.us/f/italiabronz.png/. The site of Golasecca, where the Ticino
Ticino River
The river Ticino is a left-bank tributary of the Po River. It has given its name to the Swiss canton through which its upper portion flows.-The course:...
exits from Lake Maggiore
Lake Maggiore
Lake Maggiore is a large lake located on the south side of the Alps. It is the second largest of Italy and largest of southern Switzerland. Lake Maggiore is the most westerly of the three great prealpine lakes of Italy, it extends for about 70 km between Locarno and Arona.The climate is mild...
, flourished for particularly favorable geographical circumstances as it was particularly suitable for long-distance exchanges, in which Golaseccans acted as intermediaries between Etruscans and the Halstatt culture of Austria
Austria
Austria , officially the Republic of Austria , is a landlocked country of roughly 8.4 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the...
, supported on the all-important trade in salt
Salt Road
A salt road ) is any of the prehistoric and historical trade routes by which essential salt has been transported to regions that lacked it ....
.
The commercial mediation then broadened to include the Greek world, bringing in oil and wine, bronze objects, Attic pottery, incense and coral, and northwards the more distant transalpine world, sources of tin for bronze and amber
Amber Road
The Amber Road was an ancient trade route for the transfer of amber. As one of the waterways and ancient highways, for centuries the road led from Europe to Asia and back, and from northern Africa to the Baltic Sea....
from the Baltic Sea
Baltic Sea
The Baltic Sea is a brackish mediterranean sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from 20°E to 26°E longitude. It is bounded by the Scandinavian Peninsula, the mainland of Europe, and the Danish islands. It drains into the Kattegat by way of the Øresund, the Great Belt and...
).
In a broader context, the subalpine Golasecca culture is the very last expression of the Middle European Urnfield culture of the European Bronze Age
Bronze Age
The Bronze Age is a period characterized by the use of copper and its alloy bronze as the chief hard materials in the manufacture of some implements and weapons. Chronologically, it stands between the Stone Age and Iron Age...
. The culture's richest flowering was Golasecca II, in the first half of the 6th to early 5th centuries BCE. It lasted until it was overwhelmed by the Gaulish
Gaulish language
The Gaulish language is an extinct Celtic language that was spoken by the Gauls, a people who inhabited the region known as Gaul from the Iron Age through the Roman period...
Celts in the 4th century and was finally incorporated into the hegemony of the Roman Republic
Roman Republic
The Roman Republic was the period of the ancient Roman civilization where the government operated as a republic. It began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, traditionally dated around 508 BC, and its replacement by a government headed by two consuls, elected annually by the citizens and...
.
Golasecca culture is divided for convenient reference into three parts: the first two cover the period of the 9th to the first half of the 5th century BCE; the third, coinciding with La Tène A-B
La Tène culture
The La Tène culture was a European Iron Age culture named after the archaeological site of La Tène on the north side of Lake Neuchâtel in Switzerland, where a rich cache of artifacts was discovered by Hansli Kopp in 1857....
of the later Iron Age
Iron Age
The Iron Age is the archaeological period generally occurring after the Bronze Age, marked by the prevalent use of iron. The early period of the age is characterized by the widespread use of iron or steel. The adoption of such material coincided with other changes in society, including differing...
in this region and extending to the end of the 4th century BCE, is marked by increasing Celtic influences, culminating in Celtic hegemony after the conquests of 388 BCE. The very earliest finds are of the Late Bronze Age (9th century), apparently building upon a local culture.
In Golasecca culture some of the first evolved characteristics of historic society may be seen in the specialized use of materials and the adaptation of the local terrain. The early-period habitations were circular wooden constructions along the edge of the river's floodplain; each was built on a low basement of stone round a central hearth and floored with river pebbles set in clay. Hand-shaped ceramics, made without a potter's wheel
Potter's wheel
In pottery, a potter's wheel is a machine used in asma of round ceramic ware. The wheel may also be used during process of trimming the excess body from dried ware and for applying incised decoration or rings of color...
, were decorated in gesso
Gesso
Gesso is a white paint mixture consisting of a binder mixed with chalk, gypsum, pigment, or any combination of these...
. The use of the wheel is known from the carts in the Tomb of the Warrior at the Sesto Calende
Sesto Calende
Sesto Calende is a town and comune located in the province of Varese, in the Lombardy region of northern Italy.It is located at the southern tip of Lake Maggiore, where the Ticino River starts to flow towards the Po River. The main historical sights is the Abbey of San Donato, built in the...
site. Amber beads from the Baltic Sea
Baltic Sea
The Baltic Sea is a brackish mediterranean sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from 20°E to 26°E longitude. It is bounded by the Scandinavian Peninsula, the mainland of Europe, and the Danish islands. It drains into the Kattegat by way of the Øresund, the Great Belt and...
, doubtless brought down the Amber Road
Amber Road
The Amber Road was an ancient trade route for the transfer of amber. As one of the waterways and ancient highways, for centuries the road led from Europe to Asia and back, and from northern Africa to the Baltic Sea....
, and obsidian
Obsidian
Obsidian is a naturally occurring volcanic glass formed as an extrusive igneous rock.It is produced when felsic lava extruded from a volcano cools rapidly with minimum crystal growth...
reveal networks of long-distance trade. From the 7th century onwards some tombs contain burial goods imported from Etruscan areas and Greek
Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece is a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era. Included in Ancient Greece is the...
objects
The settlements depended on domesticated animals: remains reveal the presence of goats, sheep, pigs, cattle and horses. Some legume and cereal crops were cultivated; nuts and fruits were collected. The dugout boat
Dugout (boat)
A dugout or dugout canoe is a boat made from a hollowed tree trunk. Other names for this type of boat are logboat and monoxylon. Monoxylon is Greek -- mono- + ξύλον xylon -- and is mostly used in classic Greek texts. In Germany they are called einbaum )...
s from Castelletto Ticino and Porto Tolle
Porto Tolle
Porto Tolle is a town in the province of Rovigo, Veneto, Italy.The municipality of Porto Tolle contains the frazioni :Boccasette, Ca' Mello, Ca' Tiepolo , Ca' Venier, Ca' Zuliani, Donzella, Pila, Polesine Camerini, Santa Giulia, Scardovari and Tolle....
are conserved at the museum of Isola Bella
Isola Bella
Isola Bella is a small island near Taormina, Sicily, southern Italy. Also known as The Pearl of the Ionian Sea, it is located within a small bay on the Ionian Sea; it was a private property until 1990, when it was bought by the Region of Sicily, being turned into a nature reserve, administrated...
. Metal, though rare, was in increasing use.
The old sites—Golasecca
Golasecca
Golasecca is a town and comune in the province of Varese, Lombardy .It has given its name to the Golasecca culture, a prehistoric civilization who lived in the Ticino River area from the Bronze Age until the 1st century BC....
, Sesto Calende
Sesto Calende
Sesto Calende is a town and comune located in the province of Varese, in the Lombardy region of northern Italy.It is located at the southern tip of Lake Maggiore, where the Ticino River starts to flow towards the Po River. The main historical sights is the Abbey of San Donato, built in the...
, Castelletto Ticino
Castelletto sopra Ticino
Castelletto sopra Ticino, also referred to by locals as Castelletto Ticino or just Castelletto, is a comune in the Province of Novara in the Italian region of Piedmont, located about 100 km northeast of Turin and about 30 km north of Novara.It is the birthplace of immunologist Serafino...
—maintained their traditional autochthonous character through the 6th century, when outside influences begin to be detectable. At the beginning of the 5th century, pastoral practices resulted in the development of new settlements in the plains.
Deciphered written characters (the "Lepontic alphabet") are found incised in ceramics or on stone, in the Celtic "Lepontic language
Lepontic language
Lepontic is an extinct Alpine language that was spoken in parts of Rhaetia and Cisalpine Gaul between 550 and 100 BC. It was a Celtic language, although its exact classification within Celtic has been the object of debate...
".
Burials
The Golasecca culture is best known by its burial customs, where an apparent ancestor cult imposed respect of the necropoli, a sacred area untouched by agrarian use or deforestationDeforestation
Deforestation is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where the land is thereafter converted to a nonforest use. Examples of deforestation include conversion of forestland to farms, ranches, or urban use....
. The early-period burials took place in selected raised positions oriented with respect to the sun. Burial practices were direct inhumation or in lidded cista
Cista
A cista in the classical world was generally a casket, used for example to hold unguents or jewels. More specifically, in the Mystery cult, a cista mystica is a basket or chest used to house snakes. Cistae mysticae were used in the initiation ceremony of the cult of Bacchus, or Dionysus, as well...
e. Stone circles and alignments are found. Burial urns were painted with designs, with accessory ceramics, such as cups on tall bases. Bronze objects are usually of wearing apparel: pin
Pin
A pin is a device used for fastening objects or material together.Pin may also refer to:* Award pin, a small piece of metal or plastic with a pin attached given as an award for some achievement...
s and fibulas, armband
Armband
An armband is a piece of material worn around the arm over the sleeve of other clothing if present. they may be worn for pure ornamentation to mark the wearer as belonging to group, having a certain rank or role, or being in a particular state or condition...
s, rings
Ring (jewellery)
A finger ring is a circular band worn as a type of ornamental jewelry around a finger; it is the most common current meaning of the word ring. Other types of metal bands worn as ornaments are also called rings, such as arm rings and neck rings....
, earring
Earring
Common locations for piercings, other than the earlobe, include the rook, tragus, and across the helix . The simple term "ear piercing" usually refers to an earlobe piercing, whereas piercings in the upper part of the external ear are often referred to as "cartilage piercings"...
s, pendant
Pendant
A pendant is a loose-hanging piece of jewellery, generally attached by a small loop to a necklace, when the ensemble may be known as a "pendant necklace". A pendant earring is an earring with a piece hanging down. In modern French "pendant" is the gerund form of “hanging”...
s and necklace
Necklace
A necklace is an article of jewellery which is worn around the neck. Necklaces are frequently formed from a metal jewellery chain. Others are woven or manufactured from cloth using string or twine....
s. Bronze
Bronze
Bronze is a metal alloy consisting primarily of copper, usually with tin as the main additive. It is hard and brittle, and it was particularly significant in antiquity, so much so that the Bronze Age was named after the metal...
vessels are rare. The practice of cremation
Cremation
Cremation is the process of reducing bodies to basic chemical compounds such as gasses and bone fragments. This is accomplished through high-temperature burning, vaporization and oxidation....
persists into the second period (early sixth to mid-fourth centuries).
Cremation near the burial site, followed by ash and bone burials in terracotta jars, in excavated pits set at determined distances one from the other in scattered necropolis
Necropolis
A necropolis is a large cemetery or burial ground, usually including structural tombs. The word comes from the Greek νεκρόπολις - nekropolis, literally meaning "city of the dead"...
es, characterize a culture of many small village settlements.
At the site of Sesto Calende
Sesto Calende
Sesto Calende is a town and comune located in the province of Varese, in the Lombardy region of northern Italy.It is located at the southern tip of Lake Maggiore, where the Ticino River starts to flow towards the Po River. The main historical sights is the Abbey of San Donato, built in the...
, south of Lake Maggiore
Lake Maggiore
Lake Maggiore is a large lake located on the south side of the Alps. It is the second largest of Italy and largest of southern Switzerland. Lake Maggiore is the most westerly of the three great prealpine lakes of Italy, it extends for about 70 km between Locarno and Arona.The climate is mild...
, were two chariot burial
Chariot burial
Chariot burials are tombs in which the deceased was buried together with his chariot, usually including his horses and other possessions....
s dating to the 7th and 6th century BCE accompanied with weapons, ornaments and a large situla
Situla
Situla is the Latin for bucket, and can mean* situla , a bucket-like vessel, usually of bronze in the Iron Age, and ivory in the Middle Ages* Kappa Aquarii, a star in the constellation Aquarius...
while an earlier burial at Ca' Morta - Como
Como
Como is a city and comune in Lombardy, Italy.It is the administrative capital of the Province of Como....
(c. 700 BCE) included a four-wheeled wagon in the tomb.
In a Golasecca culture tomb in Pombia
Pombia
Pombia is a comune in the Province of Novara in the Italian region Piedmont, located about 100 km northeast of Turin and about 20 km north of Novara.-History:It has Roman origins, when it was called Flavia Plumbia...
has been found the oldest known remain of common hop beer in the world.
See also
- Ancient peoples of Italy
- Canegrate cultureCanegrate cultureThe Canegrate culture was a civilization of Prehistoric Italy whom developed from the recent Bronze Age until the Iron Age, in the Pianura Padana of what are now western Lombardy, eastern Piedmont and Canton Ticino....
- Celts in the Alps and Po Valley
- Cisalpine GaulCisalpine GaulCisalpine Gaul, in Latin: Gallia Cisalpina or Citerior, also called Gallia Togata, was a Roman province until 41 BC when it was merged into Roman Italy.It bore the name Gallia, because the great body of its inhabitants, after the expulsion of the Etruscans, consisted of Gauls or Celts...
- Este cultureEste cultureThe Este culture was a proto-historic culture existed from the late Italian Bronze Age to the Roman period and located in the present territory of Veneto. It is named from Este in the province of Padova.-See also:*Adriatic Veneti*Polada culture*Euganei*Canegrate culture*Golasecca...
- InsubresInsubresThe Insubres were a Gaulish population settled in Insubria, in what is now Lombardy . They were the founders of Milan . Though ethnically Celtic at the time of Roman conquest , they were most likely the result of the fusion of pre-existing Ligurian, Celtic and "Italic" population strata with Gaulish...
- LepontiiLepontiiThe Lepontii were an ancient people occupying portions of Rhaetia in the Alps during the time of the Roman conquest of that territory. The Lepontii have been variously described as a Celtic, Ligurian, Raetian, and Germanic tribe...
- Prehistoric ItalyPrehistoric Italythumb|A Sardinian bronze statuette, perhaps portraying a tribal chief. [[Cagliari]], Museo Archeologico Nazionale.The territory of what is now Italy was settled by Neanderthal man in the Lower Palaeolithic, roughly 500,000 years ago. As elsewhere in Europe, the Neanterthals co-existed with Homo...
- Villanovan cultureVillanovan cultureThe Villanovan culture was the earliest Iron Age culture of central and northern Italy, abruptly following the Bronze Age Terramare culture and giving way in the 7th century BC to an increasingly orientalizing culture influenced by Greek traders, which was followed without a severe break by the...
Specific readings
- Raffaele De Marinis (1991). "I Celti Golasecchiani". In Multiple Authors, I Celti, Bompiani.
- Raffaele De Marinis (1990). Liguri e Celto-Liguri, Officine grafiche Garzanti Milano, Garzanti-Scheiwiller
- Ludwig Pauli, 1971. Die Golaseccakultur und Mitteleuropa: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Handels über die Alpen (Hamburg: Hamburger Beiträge zur Archäologie). ISBN 3-87118-085-8
- Francesca Ridgeway, in David Ridgeway, Francesca Ridgeway, eds. Italy Before the Romans (Academic Press) 1979.
Further reading
- Roberto Corbella: Celti : itinerari storici e turistici tra Lombardia, Piemonte, Svizzera, Macchione, Varese c2000; 119 p., ill; 20 cm; ISBN 8883400305; EAN: 9788883400308
- Roberto Corbella: Magia e mistero nella terra dei Celti : Como, Varesotto, Ossola (Macchione, Varese) 2004; 159 p. : ill. ; 25 cm; ISBN 8883401867; EAN: 9788883401862
- Arnaldo D'Aversa: La Valle Padana tra Etruschi, Celti e Romani, (Paideia, Brescia) 1986, 101 p. ill., 21 cm, ISBN 88-394-0381-7
- Maria Teresa Grassi: I Celti in Italia, 2nd ed., (series: Biblioteca di Archeologia) (Longanesi, Milan) 1991 154 p., 32 c. di tav., ill. ; 21 cm; ISBN 88-304-1012-8
- Venceslas Kruta: I celti e il Mediterraneo, Jaca Book, 2004, 78 p., ISBN 881643628X, ISBN 9788816436282
- Venceslas Kruta: La grande storia dei celti. La nascita, l'affermazione e la decadenza, Newton & Compton, 2003, 512 p., ISBN 8882898512, ISBN 9788882898519
- Venceslas Kruta & Valerio Massimo ManfrediValerio Massimo ManfrediValerio Massimo Manfredi is an Italian historian, writer, archaeologist and journalist.-Biography:He was born in Piumazzo di Castelfranco Emilia, province of Modena and is married to Christine Fedderson Manfredi, who translates his published works from Italian to English...
: "I celti d'Italia", Mondadori, 2000 (Collana: Oscar storia), ISBN 8804477105, ISBN 9788804477105 - Antonio Violante; introduzione di Venceslas Kruta: I Celti a sud delle Alpi, (Silvana, Milano), 1993 (series: Popoli dell'Italia Antica), 137 p., ill., fot; 32 cm; ISBN 88-366-0442-0
External links
- Adelaide Bianchi, 1998. "Necropoli Protostorica della Cultura Golasecca"
- (Comune di Golasecca) Luca Simonetta, in Comune di Golasecca 18.2
- Raffaele C. De Marinis, La civiltà di Golasecca : i più antichi Celti d’Italia. http://www.archeoserver.it/space/UniMi/Comunicazione%20e%20didattica/Dispense%20e%20tavole%20scaricabili/deMarinisGolasecca.pdf
- Golasecca culture Map (Bronze AgeBronze AgeThe Bronze Age is a period characterized by the use of copper and its alloy bronze as the chief hard materials in the manufacture of some implements and weapons. Chronologically, it stands between the Stone Age and Iron Age...
). http://img641.imageshack.us/img641/6214/italiabronz.png - The Princely Tombs of Sesto CalendeSesto CalendeSesto Calende is a town and comune located in the province of Varese, in the Lombardy region of northern Italy.It is located at the southern tip of Lake Maggiore, where the Ticino River starts to flow towards the Po River. The main historical sights is the Abbey of San Donato, built in the...
http://www.comune.sesto-calende.va.it/tur_cult/museoweb/english/1ferro_c/principesche/principesche.htm
