George Mouzalon
Encyclopedia
George Mouzalon was a high official of the Empire of Nicaea
under Theodore II Laskaris
(r. 1254–1258). Of humble origin, he became Theodore's companion in childhood and was raised to high state office upon the latter's assumption of power. This caused great resentment from the aristocracy, which had monopolized high offices and resented Theodore's policies. In 1258, he was appointed, together with Patriarch Arsenios Autoreianos
, regent of Theodore's son John IV Laskaris
(1258–1261). He was assassinated only a few days after Theodore's death however by soldiers, as the result of a conspiracy led by the nobles under the future emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos
(r. 1259–1282).
family is first attested in the 11th century, and produced few notable members until the mid-13th century, with the exception of Nicholas IV Mouzalon
, Patriarch of Constantinople
in 1147–1151. George Mouzalon was born at Adramyttium on the Anatolia
n coast in ca. 1220. His family was considered as low-born, but he and his brothers became the childhood friends of Theodore II, being raised with him in the palace as his paidopouloi (παιδόπουλοι "pages
"). It is assumed that they were also educated along with Theodore, sharing his classes under the scholar Nikephoros Blemmydes. There were also at least two sisters, one of whom was later married to a member of the Hagiotheodorites family.
When Theodore became emperor in November 1254, he raised the Mouzalones to the highest state offices: George was made megas domestikos (commander in chief of the army) while two of his brothers, Andronikos and Theodore (the eldest brother), were made protovestiarios
(grand chamberlain) and protokynegos (head huntsman) respectively. According to the contemporary chroniclers, the emperor loved George "above all others"; in some letters he calls him "son" and "brother". During Theodore's reign George was the emperor's senior minister and his most trusted advisor. Thus he took part in the council convened to discuss the proper reaction to the invasion of Nicaea's Macedonia
n holdings by the Bulgarians
after Vatatzes' death. George Mouzalon supported the majority opinion that Theodore himself should campaign against the invaders. During Theodore's absence on campaign in 1255, George was left behind as regent of the state. Upon his return, Theodore raised George further, naming him protosebastos and protovestiarios
and instituting the new title of megas stratopedarches for him. Andronikos Mouzalon succeeded George as megas domestikos. It was an extremely high honour: the combined title "protosebastos and protovestiarios" was normally conferred only to close kinsmen of the emperor, while the offices of protovestiarios and megas domestikos had always up till then been the preserve of aristocratic families.
The elevation of the Mouzalones was not only a mark of personal affection or favour, but also in line with Theodore's policies, which aimed to curb the influence and independence of the powerful nobility. The appointment of low-born "new men
" to such high posts, and Theodore's often harsh and arbitrary treatment of the nobles, aroused the ire of the traditional aristocracy, and especially the capable and ambitious Michael Palaiologos
. The aristocrats' hostility was further intensified when the emperor gave his low-born favourites noble brides: George Mouzalon wedded Theodora Kantakouzene
, a niece of Michael Palaiologos, and Andronikos married a daughter of the former protovestiarios Alexios Raoul
. After Mouzalon's murder, Theodora would marry the protovestiarios John Raoul Petraliphas
(in 1261). A staunch opponent of her uncle's unionist religious policies
, she was exiled and became a nun. After Michael's death she restored the monastery of Saint Andrew in Krisei, to where she transferred the relics of Patriarch Arsenios Autoreianos, and was a prominent member of the capital's literary circles.
.jpg)
Shortly before Theodore II died on 16 August 1258, he left George Mouzalon, along with Patriarch Arsenios
, as regent and guardian of his 8-year old son John IV. This appointment further enraged the aristocracy, and Mouzalon's position became extremely precarious. Mouzalon was also unpopular with the clergy because he was associated with Theodore's high-handed treatment of the Church, and with the people, who feared that he would try to usurp the throne. Most importantly however, he faced the hostility of the army, in particular the Latin mercenaries, who had apparently been denied the usual stipends and donatives. In addition, they probably resented Theodore's intention to raise a "national" army composed solely of Byzantine Greeks
, and Mouzalon is recorded by Pachymeres to have taken measures. Palaiologos, who as megas konostaulos held command over the Latins, was in a good position to exploit these grievances.
To prevent any action against his testament's provisions for his son's succession and the regency, Theodore on his deathbed demanded an oath to be taken by Senate, army, people and clergy, both those present at court and those absent elsewhere in the state. Immediately after his death however, aware of his vulnerability and his complete lack of support, George Mouzalon called an assembly of the leading nobles, officials and military commanders. He offered to resign from his post in favour of any person that the assembly chose, but the dignitaries, led by Michael Palaiologos, dissuaded him and encouraged him to stay on and even accepted to take an oath of loyalty to him as well as to the young emperor. It was a sham, as a conspiracy by the leading aristocratic families was well under way to depose him, in which Palaiologos apparently played a covert but leading role.
Thus, only a few days after the death of Theodore II (the sources disagree on the exact date, although 25 August is the widely accepted date), a memorial service was held at the Monastery of Sosandra in Magnesia
, founded by John III Vatatzes (r. 1221–1254) and serving as his and Theodore's burial place. The entire court attended, while the army was encamped on the plain below the monastery. As soon as George Mouzalon, his brothers and his retinue arrived, the service began. Outside the church however, soldiers had assembled, many of them Latin mercenaries, and they began to clamour and demand to see the young emperor. John IV went outside and raised his hand to quiet them; the soldiers however allegedly mistook this as a signal. Joined by a large mob, they stormed the church aiming to kill the Mouzalon brothers. They were warned of what was going on, but George only sent his secretary Theophylact to investigate. He was mistaken for Mouzalon and killed by the crowd. The mob however realized its error (the secretary was wearing black shoes, while the protovestiarios wore green ones) and entered the church, the soldiers swords in hand.
As the people inside the church scattered, the Mouzalon brothers tried to hide: George hid under the altar, Andronikos behind a door, and Theodore in a corner by the emperor's tomb. The mob however proceeded to search the church for them, and George was discovered by a Latin soldier named Karoulos ("Charles"). Mouzalon was dragged from under the altar and, despite pleading to ransom his life, was executed. So great was the frenzy of the crowd that his corpse was repeatedly stabbed and hacked to pieces, so that the parts had to be gathered in a sack for burial afterwards. Andronikos and an unnamed brother-in-law too were slain, while Theodore's fate is uncertain: some scholars believe he survived and is to be identified with Theodore Mouzalon, a chief minister to both Michael VIII and Andronikos II Palaiologos
(r. 1282–1328). The Mouzalon family's houses were then ransacked by the mob; and when George Mouzalon's wife fled to her uncle Michael Palaiologos and pleaded for her husband's life, she was brusquely told to be quiet or she would share his fate. Palaiologos' responsibility in the whole affair is further supported by the fact that none of the Mouzalones' murderers were ever persecuted. Indeed, the mercenary Charles appears later as Palaiologos' confidant.
Mouzalon's death was followed by a purge of Theodore II's other prominent "new men", the protostrator
John Angelos and the protovestiarites Karyanites: Angelos fled into exile and later committed suicide, while Karyanites was imprisoned. Only George Akropolites survived among Theodore II's protégés, apparently because he at the time was in prison in Epirus
; eventually he reached high office under Michael Palaiologos. Michael Palaiologos in the meantime consolidated his position, being named regent with the rank of megas doux
. Soon however he took the title of despotes
, and in early 1259, he was crowned emperor. Ostensibly still the guardian and co-emperor of John VI, after the recapture of Constantinople
in 1261 he sidelined and imprisoned John, being crowned sole emperor at the Hagia Sophia
and founding the Palaiologan dynasty, the last ruling house of Byzantium.
, which otherwise generally follows Akropolites closely, notably fails to repeat the latter's negative comments, and even records that it was the assembled nobles who persuaded the Mouzalones to stay in the church during the riot on the day of their murder. George Pachymeres
too, whose treatment of Theodore Laskaris' reign and the Laskarid emperors in general is far more favourable to Akropolites', considers the Mouzalones to have been promoted on merit, condemns their murder and names Palaiologos as directly responsible. The later historian Nikephoros Gregoras likewise avoids negative comments, as do most modern historians.
Empire of Nicaea
The Empire of Nicaea was the largest of the three Byzantine Greek successor states founded by the aristocracy of the Byzantine Empire that fled after Constantinople was occupied by Western European and Venetian forces during the Fourth Crusade...
under Theodore II Laskaris
Theodore II Laskaris
Theodore II Doukas Laskaris or Ducas Lascaris was emperor of Nicaea, 1254–1258.-Life:Theodore II Doukas Laskaris was the only son of Emperor John III Doukas Vatatzes and Eirene Laskarina, the daughter of Emperor Theodore I Laskaris and Anna Angelina, a daughter of Emperor Alexios III Angelos and...
(r. 1254–1258). Of humble origin, he became Theodore's companion in childhood and was raised to high state office upon the latter's assumption of power. This caused great resentment from the aristocracy, which had monopolized high offices and resented Theodore's policies. In 1258, he was appointed, together with Patriarch Arsenios Autoreianos
Patriarch Arsenius I of Constantinople
Arsenios Autoreianos , Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, lived about the middle of the 13th century....
, regent of Theodore's son John IV Laskaris
John IV Laskaris
John IV Doukas Laskaris was emperor of Nicaea from August 18, 1258 to December 25, 1261...
(1258–1261). He was assassinated only a few days after Theodore's death however by soldiers, as the result of a conspiracy led by the nobles under the future emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos
Michael VIII Palaiologos
Michael VIII Palaiologos or Palaeologus reigned as Byzantine Emperor 1259–1282. Michael VIII was the founder of the Palaiologan dynasty that would rule the Byzantine Empire until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453...
(r. 1259–1282).
Early life and service under Theodore II
The MouzalonMouzalon
Mouzalon or Muzalon was the name of a Byzantine family attested in the 11th through 15th centuries, which produced a number of officials and high dignitaries. The family reached its peak in the 1250s, when it enjoyed the patronage of Emperor Theodore II Laskaris , but was largely purged after his...
family is first attested in the 11th century, and produced few notable members until the mid-13th century, with the exception of Nicholas IV Mouzalon
Patriarch Nicholas IV of Constantinople
Nicholas IV Mouzalon was the Patriarch of Constantinople from December 1147 to March/April 1151.Nicholas was born in ca. 1070, and probably began his career teaching the gospels. Emperor Alexios I Komnenos appointed him as archbishop of Cyprus, but Nicholas abdicated the see in ca. 1110...
, Patriarch of Constantinople
Patriarch of Constantinople
The Ecumenical Patriarch is the Archbishop of Constantinople – New Rome – ranking as primus inter pares in the Eastern Orthodox communion, which is seen by followers as the One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church....
in 1147–1151. George Mouzalon was born at Adramyttium on the Anatolia
Anatolia
Anatolia is a geographic and historical term denoting the westernmost protrusion of Asia, comprising the majority of the Republic of Turkey...
n coast in ca. 1220. His family was considered as low-born, but he and his brothers became the childhood friends of Theodore II, being raised with him in the palace as his paidopouloi (παιδόπουλοι "pages
Page (servant)
A page or page boy is a traditionally young male servant, a messenger at the service of a nobleman or royal.-The medieval page:In medieval times, a page was an attendant to a knight; an apprentice squire...
"). It is assumed that they were also educated along with Theodore, sharing his classes under the scholar Nikephoros Blemmydes. There were also at least two sisters, one of whom was later married to a member of the Hagiotheodorites family.
When Theodore became emperor in November 1254, he raised the Mouzalones to the highest state offices: George was made megas domestikos (commander in chief of the army) while two of his brothers, Andronikos and Theodore (the eldest brother), were made protovestiarios
Protovestiarios
Protovestiarios was a high Byzantine court position, originally reserved for eunuchs.-History and functions:The title is first attested in 412, as the comes sacrae vestis, an official in charge of the Byzantine emperor's "sacred wardrobe" , coming under the praepositus sacri cubiculi...
(grand chamberlain) and protokynegos (head huntsman) respectively. According to the contemporary chroniclers, the emperor loved George "above all others"; in some letters he calls him "son" and "brother". During Theodore's reign George was the emperor's senior minister and his most trusted advisor. Thus he took part in the council convened to discuss the proper reaction to the invasion of Nicaea's Macedonia
Macedonia (region)
Macedonia is a geographical and historical region of the Balkan peninsula in southeastern Europe. Its boundaries have changed considerably over time, but nowadays the region is considered to include parts of five Balkan countries: Greece, the Republic of Macedonia, Bulgaria, Albania, Serbia, as...
n holdings by the Bulgarians
Second Bulgarian Empire
The Second Bulgarian Empire was a medieval Bulgarian state which existed between 1185 and 1396 . A successor of the First Bulgarian Empire, it reached the peak of its power under Kaloyan and Ivan Asen II before gradually being conquered by the Ottomans in the late 14th-early 15th century...
after Vatatzes' death. George Mouzalon supported the majority opinion that Theodore himself should campaign against the invaders. During Theodore's absence on campaign in 1255, George was left behind as regent of the state. Upon his return, Theodore raised George further, naming him protosebastos and protovestiarios
Protovestiarios
Protovestiarios was a high Byzantine court position, originally reserved for eunuchs.-History and functions:The title is first attested in 412, as the comes sacrae vestis, an official in charge of the Byzantine emperor's "sacred wardrobe" , coming under the praepositus sacri cubiculi...
and instituting the new title of megas stratopedarches for him. Andronikos Mouzalon succeeded George as megas domestikos. It was an extremely high honour: the combined title "protosebastos and protovestiarios" was normally conferred only to close kinsmen of the emperor, while the offices of protovestiarios and megas domestikos had always up till then been the preserve of aristocratic families.
The elevation of the Mouzalones was not only a mark of personal affection or favour, but also in line with Theodore's policies, which aimed to curb the influence and independence of the powerful nobility. The appointment of low-born "new men
Novus homo
Homo novus was the term in ancient Rome for a man who was the first in his family to serve in the Roman Senate or, more specifically, to be elected as consul...
" to such high posts, and Theodore's often harsh and arbitrary treatment of the nobles, aroused the ire of the traditional aristocracy, and especially the capable and ambitious Michael Palaiologos
Michael VIII Palaiologos
Michael VIII Palaiologos or Palaeologus reigned as Byzantine Emperor 1259–1282. Michael VIII was the founder of the Palaiologan dynasty that would rule the Byzantine Empire until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453...
. The aristocrats' hostility was further intensified when the emperor gave his low-born favourites noble brides: George Mouzalon wedded Theodora Kantakouzene
Theodora Raoulaina
Theodora Palaiologina Kantakouzene Raoulaina was a Byzantine noblewoman, the niece of Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos . Widowed twice, she clashed with her uncle over his unionist religious policies, and became a nun. She also restored the monastery of Saint Andrew in Krisei, to where she...
, a niece of Michael Palaiologos, and Andronikos married a daughter of the former protovestiarios Alexios Raoul
Alexios Raoul (protovestiarios)
The protovestiarios Alexios Raoul was a Byzantine aristocrat and general of the Empire of Nicaea.- Life :Alexios was the scion of a wealthy aristocratic family with large landholdings around Smyrna, and possibly the son of the sebastos Constantine Raoul, who had played a role in the usurpation of...
. After Mouzalon's murder, Theodora would marry the protovestiarios John Raoul Petraliphas
John Raoul Petraliphas
John Raoul Komnenos Doukas Angelos Petraliphas was a Byzantine noble and military commander during the reign of Michael VIII Palaiologos .- Life :...
(in 1261). A staunch opponent of her uncle's unionist religious policies
Second Council of Lyon
The Second Council of Lyon was the fourteenth ecumenical council of the Catholic Church, convoked on 31 March 1272 and convened in Lyon, France, in 1274. Pope Gregory X presided over the council, called to act on a pledge by Byzantine emperor Michael VIII to reunite the Eastern church with the West...
, she was exiled and became a nun. After Michael's death she restored the monastery of Saint Andrew in Krisei, to where she transferred the relics of Patriarch Arsenios Autoreianos, and was a prominent member of the capital's literary circles.
Appointment as regent and assassination
Patriarch Arsenius I of Constantinople
Arsenios Autoreianos , Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, lived about the middle of the 13th century....
, as regent and guardian of his 8-year old son John IV. This appointment further enraged the aristocracy, and Mouzalon's position became extremely precarious. Mouzalon was also unpopular with the clergy because he was associated with Theodore's high-handed treatment of the Church, and with the people, who feared that he would try to usurp the throne. Most importantly however, he faced the hostility of the army, in particular the Latin mercenaries, who had apparently been denied the usual stipends and donatives. In addition, they probably resented Theodore's intention to raise a "national" army composed solely of Byzantine Greeks
Byzantine Greeks
Byzantine Greeks or Byzantines is a conventional term used by modern historians to refer to the medieval Greek or Hellenised citizens of the Byzantine Empire, centered mainly in Constantinople, the southern Balkans, the Greek islands, Asia Minor , Cyprus and the large urban centres of the Near East...
, and Mouzalon is recorded by Pachymeres to have taken measures. Palaiologos, who as megas konostaulos held command over the Latins, was in a good position to exploit these grievances.
To prevent any action against his testament's provisions for his son's succession and the regency, Theodore on his deathbed demanded an oath to be taken by Senate, army, people and clergy, both those present at court and those absent elsewhere in the state. Immediately after his death however, aware of his vulnerability and his complete lack of support, George Mouzalon called an assembly of the leading nobles, officials and military commanders. He offered to resign from his post in favour of any person that the assembly chose, but the dignitaries, led by Michael Palaiologos, dissuaded him and encouraged him to stay on and even accepted to take an oath of loyalty to him as well as to the young emperor. It was a sham, as a conspiracy by the leading aristocratic families was well under way to depose him, in which Palaiologos apparently played a covert but leading role.
Thus, only a few days after the death of Theodore II (the sources disagree on the exact date, although 25 August is the widely accepted date), a memorial service was held at the Monastery of Sosandra in Magnesia
Magnesia ad Sipylum
Magnesia ad Sipylum , was a city of Lydia, situated about 65 km northeast of Smyrna on the river Hermus at the foot of Mount Sipylus...
, founded by John III Vatatzes (r. 1221–1254) and serving as his and Theodore's burial place. The entire court attended, while the army was encamped on the plain below the monastery. As soon as George Mouzalon, his brothers and his retinue arrived, the service began. Outside the church however, soldiers had assembled, many of them Latin mercenaries, and they began to clamour and demand to see the young emperor. John IV went outside and raised his hand to quiet them; the soldiers however allegedly mistook this as a signal. Joined by a large mob, they stormed the church aiming to kill the Mouzalon brothers. They were warned of what was going on, but George only sent his secretary Theophylact to investigate. He was mistaken for Mouzalon and killed by the crowd. The mob however realized its error (the secretary was wearing black shoes, while the protovestiarios wore green ones) and entered the church, the soldiers swords in hand.
As the people inside the church scattered, the Mouzalon brothers tried to hide: George hid under the altar, Andronikos behind a door, and Theodore in a corner by the emperor's tomb. The mob however proceeded to search the church for them, and George was discovered by a Latin soldier named Karoulos ("Charles"). Mouzalon was dragged from under the altar and, despite pleading to ransom his life, was executed. So great was the frenzy of the crowd that his corpse was repeatedly stabbed and hacked to pieces, so that the parts had to be gathered in a sack for burial afterwards. Andronikos and an unnamed brother-in-law too were slain, while Theodore's fate is uncertain: some scholars believe he survived and is to be identified with Theodore Mouzalon, a chief minister to both Michael VIII and Andronikos II Palaiologos
Andronikos II Palaiologos
Andronikos II Palaiologos , Latinized as Andronicus II Palaeologus, was Byzantine emperor from 1282 to 1328. He was the eldest surviving son of Michael VIII Palaiologos and Theodora Doukaina Vatatzina, grandniece of John III Doukas Vatatzes...
(r. 1282–1328). The Mouzalon family's houses were then ransacked by the mob; and when George Mouzalon's wife fled to her uncle Michael Palaiologos and pleaded for her husband's life, she was brusquely told to be quiet or she would share his fate. Palaiologos' responsibility in the whole affair is further supported by the fact that none of the Mouzalones' murderers were ever persecuted. Indeed, the mercenary Charles appears later as Palaiologos' confidant.
Mouzalon's death was followed by a purge of Theodore II's other prominent "new men", the protostrator
Protostrator
Prōtostratōr was a Byzantine court office, originating as the imperial stable master, which in the last centuries of the Empire evolved into one of the senior military offices...
John Angelos and the protovestiarites Karyanites: Angelos fled into exile and later committed suicide, while Karyanites was imprisoned. Only George Akropolites survived among Theodore II's protégés, apparently because he at the time was in prison in Epirus
Despotate of Epirus
The Despotate or Principality of Epirus was one of the Byzantine Greek successor states of the Byzantine Empire that emerged in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade in 1204. It claimed to be the legitimate successor of the Byzantine Empire, along with the Empire of Nicaea, and the Empire of Trebizond...
; eventually he reached high office under Michael Palaiologos. Michael Palaiologos in the meantime consolidated his position, being named regent with the rank of megas doux
Megas Doux
The megas doux was one of the highest positions in the hierarchy of the later Byzantine Empire, denoting the commander-in-chief of the Byzantine navy. It is sometimes also given by the half-Latinizations megaduke or megadux...
. Soon however he took the title of despotes
Despotes
Despot , was a senior Byzantine court title that was bestowed on the sons or sons-in-law of reigning emperors, and initially denoted the heir-apparent...
, and in early 1259, he was crowned emperor. Ostensibly still the guardian and co-emperor of John VI, after the recapture of Constantinople
Constantinople
Constantinople was the capital of the Roman, Eastern Roman, Byzantine, Latin, and Ottoman Empires. Throughout most of the Middle Ages, Constantinople was Europe's largest and wealthiest city.-Names:...
in 1261 he sidelined and imprisoned John, being crowned sole emperor at the Hagia Sophia
Hagia Sophia
Hagia Sophia is a former Orthodox patriarchal basilica, later a mosque, and now a museum in Istanbul, Turkey...
and founding the Palaiologan dynasty, the last ruling house of Byzantium.
Treatment by historians
Of the contemporary sources, the history of Akropolites is the most negative towards the Mouzalon brothers, whom he calls "loathsome little men, worthless specimens of humanity" and "false of tongue, nimble of foot, peerless at beating the floor in dance". Although otherwise reliable, Akropolites' account on this issue is suspect: on the one hand he evidently tries to disassociate himself from Theodore II's "new men", to whom he too originally belonged, while on the other he is generally strongly biased in favour of Michael Palaiologos, whom he tries to exculpate from the assassination. Other historians of the time paint a more favourable picture. The account of the near-contemporary Theodore SkoutariotesTheodore Skoutariotes
Theodore Skoutariotes was a Byzantine cleric and official during the reign of Michael VIII Palaiologos .Skoutariotes was born ca. 1230. As a deacon, he served as epi ton deeseon and was named as dikaiophylax in 1270...
, which otherwise generally follows Akropolites closely, notably fails to repeat the latter's negative comments, and even records that it was the assembled nobles who persuaded the Mouzalones to stay in the church during the riot on the day of their murder. George Pachymeres
George Pachymeres
Georgius Pachymeres , a Byzantine Greek historian and miscellaneous writer, was born at Nicaea, in Bithynia, where his father had taken refuge after the capture of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204...
too, whose treatment of Theodore Laskaris' reign and the Laskarid emperors in general is far more favourable to Akropolites', considers the Mouzalones to have been promoted on merit, condemns their murder and names Palaiologos as directly responsible. The later historian Nikephoros Gregoras likewise avoids negative comments, as do most modern historians.