Francisco Imperial
Encyclopedia
Francisco Imperial was a Genoese
poet who lived in Seville
and wrote lyric
and allegorical poetry in Spanish around the turn of the 15th century. All of his preserved poetry can be found in the Cancionero de Baena
.
, a 16th century Spanish genealogist, reports that Imperial belonged to one of the noble families of Genoa, from which families two consuls were periodically appointed to promote Genoese interests in Seville. Some have connected Francisco Imperial to a “Jaimes Emperial,” who is mentioned in the will of Pedro the Cruel, suggesting that this Jaimes Emperial may be the father of the poet, but this identification is uncertain. It seems that Imperial served as the lieutenant of the Admiral of Castile
: a 1403 letter from King Martin I of Aragon
is addressed to “Miçer Francisco Imperial, lugar tenient de almirant de Castilla.” Another document from 1409 refers to the “herederos [heirs] de miçer Francisco Imperial”: this has been viewed as indicating that by this date the poet had died. These documents constitute the extent of our knowledge about Imperial’s life.
The lack of biographical detail on Imperial has led scholars to look in his poetry for clues to his life story. Archer Woodford has suggested that Imperial was an ecclesiastic, drawing this conclusion based on his apparent familiarity with and references to the Catholic liturgy. Colbert Nepaulsingh has asserted that the appointment of Alfonso Enriquez as the admiral of Castille (a position that he dubiously claims Imperial could have expected to assume himself), signifies a rupture between Imperial and Enrique III
, and interprets some elements in Imperial’s poetry as references to this hostility. All of these suggestions appear to be highly conjectural.
Imperial seems to have been a poet of some note. He is one of the best represented poets in the Cancionero de Baena, and in his Proemio e carta al condestable don Pedro de Portugal, the Marques de Santillana singles out Imperial (and only Imperial, among writers in Spanish) as being worthy of the title of “poeta.” In addition, some of Imperial's poems were well known enough to have elicited poetic responses (respuestas) from his contemporaries.
, in which he challenged the idea that Fortune dispenses justice and is an instrument of divine Providence
, emphasizing instead the capriciousness and apparent unfairness of Fortune’s effects. Imperial also wrote numerous love lyrics, among which several in praise of a woman he referred to as “Estrella Diana.” Two poems exist which appear to comment on the arrival in Seville of Angelina de Grecia, a noblewoman, possibly a Hungarian, who had been taken prisoner by Tamerlane and sent to the Spanish as a gift.
However, Imperial is chiefly known for two longer, allegorical works written in arte mayor: The Dezir al nacimiento de Juan II, written in 1405 in celebration of the birth of the son of Enrique III
, and the Dezir a las syete virtudes, Imperial’s longest and most famous work, which recounts a dream-vision of the Seven Virtues and contains many references to the Divine Comedy of Dante
.
Dante is a constant presence in Imperial’s poetry, most significantly in the Dezir a las syete virtudes, but elsewhere as well. Two of Imperial’s poems feature Dante as a principal character, and in large part consist of the imagined words of the Florentine poet. And when Imperial challenges the idea that Fortune is an extension of divine Providence, he explicitly mentions that he is disagreeing with Dante’s conception of Fortune (found in Inferno VII).
Translations of lines from Dante abound in Imperial, though they are often placed in very different contexts. To take one example, the Dezir al nacimiento de Juan II expresses the hope that the prince Juan will prove to be the “maestro de los que ssaben” (the master of those who know). This is a direct translation of Dante’s description of Aristotle
as “il maestro di color che sanno.” (Inferno IV.)
In addition to translating single lines, in the Dezir a las syete virtudes Imperial also frequently translates longer passages from Dante, incorporating passages of as many as six lines into his text. Imperial’s poetry also contains thematic allusions to Dante’s poetry; one of these is the Dantesque simile, examples of which appear throughout the Dezir a las syete virtudes, and another is the employment of a poetic predecessor as a guide on a visionary journey (in Dante, this guide was Virgil
; in Imperial, the guide is Dante). Between verbal echoes, allusions, and translations, at least one direct reference to Dante can be found in almost every stanza of the Dezir a las syete virtudes.
Interest in foreign languages
Imperial’s poetry is notable for its employment of foreign words and phrases. Not surprisingly, Imperial introduces many Italianisms into his poetry (most notably, the word “transumanar,” which Dante had coined in the Paradiso). But, in addition, the Dezir al nacimiento de Juan II contains lines that attempt to imitate French
, Latin
, English
and Arabic. Another lyric contains an entire verse in what appears to be a version of Provençal
(in this Imperial follows Dante, who placed Provençal verses in the mouth of the spirit of the poet Arnaut Daniel
). And one of the poems about Angelina de Grecia contains a word (“cardiamo”) apparently based on Greek
, and another word (“ssenguil”) which has been connected to Hungarian
.
Some scholars consider Imperial to be a transitional figure, and view his poetry as an anticipation of the arrival of the Renaissance in Spain. Others see Imperial as a poet of little significance, who mechanically incorporated allusions to Dante into his poetry while failing to appreciate Dante's revolutionary qualities. Regardless, for its adoption of exotic, foreign elements, and in particular for its significant debt to Dante, Imperial's poetry stands out from that of his Spanish contemporaries.
Genoa
Genoa |Ligurian]] Zena ; Latin and, archaically, English Genua) is a city and an important seaport in northern Italy, the capital of the Province of Genoa and of the region of Liguria....
poet who lived in Seville
Seville
Seville is the artistic, historic, cultural, and financial capital of southern Spain. It is the capital of the autonomous community of Andalusia and of the province of Seville. It is situated on the plain of the River Guadalquivir, with an average elevation of above sea level...
and wrote lyric
Lyric poetry
Lyric poetry is a genre of poetry that expresses personal and emotional feelings. In the ancient world, lyric poems were those which were sung to the lyre. Lyric poems do not have to rhyme, and today do not need to be set to music or a beat...
and allegorical poetry in Spanish around the turn of the 15th century. All of his preserved poetry can be found in the Cancionero de Baena
Cancionero de Baena
The Cancionero de Baena was compiled between around 1426 to 1430 by the Marrano Juan Alfonso de Baena for John II of Castile. Its full title is Cancionero del Judino Juan Alfonso de Baena....
.
Life
Very little can be said with certainty about the biography of Imperial. In the rubrics that appear above three of his poems in the Cancionero de Baena, we are told that he was born in Genoa and lived in Seville. Gonzalo Argote de MolinaGonzalo Argote de Molina
Gonzalo Argote de Molina was a Spanish writer, historian and genealogist....
, a 16th century Spanish genealogist, reports that Imperial belonged to one of the noble families of Genoa, from which families two consuls were periodically appointed to promote Genoese interests in Seville. Some have connected Francisco Imperial to a “Jaimes Emperial,” who is mentioned in the will of Pedro the Cruel, suggesting that this Jaimes Emperial may be the father of the poet, but this identification is uncertain. It seems that Imperial served as the lieutenant of the Admiral of Castile
Admiral of Castile
Admiral of Castile was a post with a long and important history in Spain. One famous holder was Fadrique Enríquez.Another was Admiral Don Bernardo de Sarrià, Baron of Polop and nobleman in the service of King James II of Aragon....
: a 1403 letter from King Martin I of Aragon
Martin I of Aragon
Martin of Aragon , called the Elder, the Humane, the Ecclesiastic, was the King of Aragon, Valencia, Sardinia, and Corsica and Count of Barcelona from 1396 and King of Sicily from 1409...
is addressed to “Miçer Francisco Imperial, lugar tenient de almirant de Castilla.” Another document from 1409 refers to the “herederos [heirs] de miçer Francisco Imperial”: this has been viewed as indicating that by this date the poet had died. These documents constitute the extent of our knowledge about Imperial’s life.
The lack of biographical detail on Imperial has led scholars to look in his poetry for clues to his life story. Archer Woodford has suggested that Imperial was an ecclesiastic, drawing this conclusion based on his apparent familiarity with and references to the Catholic liturgy. Colbert Nepaulsingh has asserted that the appointment of Alfonso Enriquez as the admiral of Castille (a position that he dubiously claims Imperial could have expected to assume himself), signifies a rupture between Imperial and Enrique III
Henry III of Castile
Henry III KG , sometimes known as Henry the Sufferer or Henry the Infirm , was the son of John I and Eleanor of Aragon, and succeeded him as King of the Castilian Crown in 1390....
, and interprets some elements in Imperial’s poetry as references to this hostility. All of these suggestions appear to be highly conjectural.
Imperial seems to have been a poet of some note. He is one of the best represented poets in the Cancionero de Baena, and in his Proemio e carta al condestable don Pedro de Portugal, the Marques de Santillana singles out Imperial (and only Imperial, among writers in Spanish) as being worthy of the title of “poeta.” In addition, some of Imperial's poems were well known enough to have elicited poetic responses (respuestas) from his contemporaries.
Works
In his edition of the poems of Imperial, Colbert Nepaulsingh attributes 18 poems to his authorship. As noted above, all of these poems appear in the Cancionero de Baena; some are ascribed explicitly to Imperial in the rubrics, while others have been identified as likely his based on their content and diction. The majority of Imperial’s poetry consists of short lyrics. He wrote several poems on the subject of the nature of the goddess FortuneFortuna (mythology)
Fortuna was the goddess of fortune and personification of luck in Roman religion. She might bring good luck or bad: she could be represented as veiled and blind, as in modern depictions of Justice, and came to represent life's capriciousness...
, in which he challenged the idea that Fortune dispenses justice and is an instrument of divine Providence
Divine Providence
In Christian theology, divine providence, or simply providence, is God's activity in the world. " Providence" is also used as a title of God exercising His providence, and then the word are usually capitalized...
, emphasizing instead the capriciousness and apparent unfairness of Fortune’s effects. Imperial also wrote numerous love lyrics, among which several in praise of a woman he referred to as “Estrella Diana.” Two poems exist which appear to comment on the arrival in Seville of Angelina de Grecia, a noblewoman, possibly a Hungarian, who had been taken prisoner by Tamerlane and sent to the Spanish as a gift.
However, Imperial is chiefly known for two longer, allegorical works written in arte mayor: The Dezir al nacimiento de Juan II, written in 1405 in celebration of the birth of the son of Enrique III
Henry III of Castile
Henry III KG , sometimes known as Henry the Sufferer or Henry the Infirm , was the son of John I and Eleanor of Aragon, and succeeded him as King of the Castilian Crown in 1390....
, and the Dezir a las syete virtudes, Imperial’s longest and most famous work, which recounts a dream-vision of the Seven Virtues and contains many references to the Divine Comedy of Dante
DANTE
Delivery of Advanced Network Technology to Europe is a not-for-profit organisation that plans, builds and operates the international networks that interconnect the various national research and education networks in Europe and surrounding regions...
.
Distinctive Features of Imperial’s Poetry
Influence of DanteDante is a constant presence in Imperial’s poetry, most significantly in the Dezir a las syete virtudes, but elsewhere as well. Two of Imperial’s poems feature Dante as a principal character, and in large part consist of the imagined words of the Florentine poet. And when Imperial challenges the idea that Fortune is an extension of divine Providence, he explicitly mentions that he is disagreeing with Dante’s conception of Fortune (found in Inferno VII).
Translations of lines from Dante abound in Imperial, though they are often placed in very different contexts. To take one example, the Dezir al nacimiento de Juan II expresses the hope that the prince Juan will prove to be the “maestro de los que ssaben” (the master of those who know). This is a direct translation of Dante’s description of Aristotle
Aristotle
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology...
as “il maestro di color che sanno.” (Inferno IV.)
In addition to translating single lines, in the Dezir a las syete virtudes Imperial also frequently translates longer passages from Dante, incorporating passages of as many as six lines into his text. Imperial’s poetry also contains thematic allusions to Dante’s poetry; one of these is the Dantesque simile, examples of which appear throughout the Dezir a las syete virtudes, and another is the employment of a poetic predecessor as a guide on a visionary journey (in Dante, this guide was Virgil
Virgil
Publius Vergilius Maro, usually called Virgil or Vergil in English , was an ancient Roman poet of the Augustan period. He is known for three major works of Latin literature, the Eclogues , the Georgics, and the epic Aeneid...
; in Imperial, the guide is Dante). Between verbal echoes, allusions, and translations, at least one direct reference to Dante can be found in almost every stanza of the Dezir a las syete virtudes.
Interest in foreign languages
Imperial’s poetry is notable for its employment of foreign words and phrases. Not surprisingly, Imperial introduces many Italianisms into his poetry (most notably, the word “transumanar,” which Dante had coined in the Paradiso). But, in addition, the Dezir al nacimiento de Juan II contains lines that attempt to imitate French
French language
French is a Romance language spoken as a first language in France, the Romandy region in Switzerland, Wallonia and Brussels in Belgium, Monaco, the regions of Quebec and Acadia in Canada, and by various communities elsewhere. Second-language speakers of French are distributed throughout many parts...
, Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
, English
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
and Arabic. Another lyric contains an entire verse in what appears to be a version of Provençal
Provençal
Provençal may refer to:*Provençal, meaning "of Provence", a region of France*Provençal dialect, a dialect of the Occitan language, spoken in the south-east of France*Provençal, meaning the whole Occitan language...
(in this Imperial follows Dante, who placed Provençal verses in the mouth of the spirit of the poet Arnaut Daniel
Arnaut Daniel
Arnaut Daniel de Riberac was an Occitan troubadour of the 12th century, praised by Dante as "il miglior fabbro" and called "Grand Master of Love" by Petrarch...
). And one of the poems about Angelina de Grecia contains a word (“cardiamo”) apparently based on Greek
Greek language
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the majority of its history;...
, and another word (“ssenguil”) which has been connected to Hungarian
Hungarian language
Hungarian is a Uralic language, part of the Ugric group. With some 14 million speakers, it is one of the most widely spoken non-Indo-European languages in Europe....
.
Some scholars consider Imperial to be a transitional figure, and view his poetry as an anticipation of the arrival of the Renaissance in Spain. Others see Imperial as a poet of little significance, who mechanically incorporated allusions to Dante into his poetry while failing to appreciate Dante's revolutionary qualities. Regardless, for its adoption of exotic, foreign elements, and in particular for its significant debt to Dante, Imperial's poetry stands out from that of his Spanish contemporaries.
External links
- http://www.spanisharts.com/books/literature/cancionero.htm Information on and images from medieval Spanish cancioneros, including the Cancionero de Baena.