Framing effect (psychology)
Encyclopedia
The framing effect, one of the cognitive biases, describes that presenting the same option in different formats can alter people's decisions. Specifically, individuals have a tendency to select inconsistent choices, depending on whether the question is framed to concentrate on losses or gains (Plous, 1993).
and Daniel Kahneman
(1981) indicated that different phrasing affected participants' responses to a question about a disease prevention strategy. The first problem given to participants offered two alternative solutions for 600 people affected by a hypothetical deadly disease:
These decisions have the same expected value
of 200 lives saved, but option B is risky. 72% of participants chose option A, whereas only 28% of participants chose option B.
The second problem, given to another group of participants, offered the same scenario with the same statistics, but described differently:
However, in this group, 78% of participants chose option D (equivalent to option B), whereas only 22% of participants chose option C (equivalent to option A).
The discrepancy in choice between these parallel options is in essence the framing effect; the two groups favored different options because the options were expressed employing different language. In the first problem, a positive frame emphasizes lives gained; in the second, a negative frame emphasizes lives lost. The alterations in the language underlie the differences in the preferences.
(Tversky & Kahneman, 1981). The value function, founded in prospect theory, illustrates an important underlying factor to the framing effect: a loss is more devastating than the equivalent gain is gratifying (Tversky & Kahneman, 1981). Thus, people tend to avoid risk when a positive frame is presented but seek risks when a negative frame is presented (Tversky & Kahneman, 1981). Additionally, the value function takes on a sigmoid
shape, which indicates that gains for smaller values are psychologically larger than equivalent increases for larger quantities (Tversky & Kahneman, 1981). Another important factor contributing to framing is certainty effect
and pseudocertainty effect
in which a sure gain is favored to a probabilistic gain (Clark, 2009), but a probabilistic loss is preferred to a definite loss (Tversky & Kahneman, 1981). For example, in Tversky and Kahneman's (1981) experiment, in the first problem, treatment A, which saved a sure 200 people, was favored due to the certainty effect.
has been a significant part of scholarly work on topics like social movements and political opinion formation in both sociology
and political science
. Political options can be framed in a way that promotes voters to prefer a certain alternative. For instance, people prefer an economic agenda when high employment rates are provided, but they are against it when the complementary unemployment rates are accentuated (Druckman, 2001b). Additionally, Rugg (as cited in Plous, 1993) exhibited a framing effect in a poll in which the same option was expressed differently. Rugg (as cited in Plous, 1993) discovered that 62% of people disagreed with allowing public condemnation of democracy, but only 46% of people agreed to forbidding public condemnation. The framing effect accounts for the 16% disparity in these effectively congruent decisions (as cited in Plous, 1993). Therefore, framing could have negative social and political implications. Druckman (2001b) also conveys that these effects could discredit public opinion, rendering polls as dubious sources of information.
Certain types of payment options may also be able to employ the framing effect to encourage people to pay at an earlier date. For example, PhD students demonstrated susceptibility to framing when reminded to pay a mandatory registration fee (Gätcher Orzen, Renner, & Stamer, in press). Specifically, Gätcher et al. (in press) reported 93% of PhD students registered early when presented a loss frame, described as a penalty fee, as opposed to 67% students registering early when presented a positive frame in the form of a discount.
It has been argued that pretrial detention may increase a defendant's willingness to accept a plea bargain, since imprisonment, rather than freedom, will be his baseline, and pleading guilty will be viewed as an event that will cause his earlier release rather than as an event that will put him in prison.
Example
A set of experiments on framing performed by psychologists Amos TverskyAmos Tversky
Amos Nathan Tversky, was a cognitive and mathematical psychologist, a pioneer of cognitive science, a longtime collaborator of Daniel Kahneman, and a key figure in the discovery of systematic human cognitive bias and handling of risk. Much of his early work concerned the foundations of measurement...
and Daniel Kahneman
Daniel Kahneman
Daniel Kahneman is an Israeli-American psychologist and Nobel laureate. He is notable for his work on the psychology of judgment and decision-making, behavioral economics and hedonic psychology....
(1981) indicated that different phrasing affected participants' responses to a question about a disease prevention strategy. The first problem given to participants offered two alternative solutions for 600 people affected by a hypothetical deadly disease:
- option A saves 200 people's lives
- option B has a 33% chance of saving all 600 people and a 66% possibility of saving no one
These decisions have the same expected value
Expected value
In probability theory, the expected value of a random variable is the weighted average of all possible values that this random variable can take on...
of 200 lives saved, but option B is risky. 72% of participants chose option A, whereas only 28% of participants chose option B.
The second problem, given to another group of participants, offered the same scenario with the same statistics, but described differently:
- if option C is taken, then 400 people die
- if option D is taken, then there is a 33% chance that no people will die and a 66% probability that all 600 will die
However, in this group, 78% of participants chose option D (equivalent to option B), whereas only 22% of participants chose option C (equivalent to option A).
The discrepancy in choice between these parallel options is in essence the framing effect; the two groups favored different options because the options were expressed employing different language. In the first problem, a positive frame emphasizes lives gained; in the second, a negative frame emphasizes lives lost. The alterations in the language underlie the differences in the preferences.
Causes
Framing impacts people because individuals perceive losses and gains differently, as illustrated in prospect theoryProspect theory
Prospect theory is a theory that describes decisions between alternatives that involve risk i.e. where the probabilities of outcomes are known. The model is descriptive: it tries to model real-life choices, rather than optimal decisions.-Model:...
(Tversky & Kahneman, 1981). The value function, founded in prospect theory, illustrates an important underlying factor to the framing effect: a loss is more devastating than the equivalent gain is gratifying (Tversky & Kahneman, 1981). Thus, people tend to avoid risk when a positive frame is presented but seek risks when a negative frame is presented (Tversky & Kahneman, 1981). Additionally, the value function takes on a sigmoid
Sigmoid
Sigmoid means resembling the lower-case Greek letter sigma or the Latin letter S. Specific uses include:* Sigmoid function, a mathematical function* Sigmoid colon, part of the large intestine or colon...
shape, which indicates that gains for smaller values are psychologically larger than equivalent increases for larger quantities (Tversky & Kahneman, 1981). Another important factor contributing to framing is certainty effect
Certainty effect
Certainty effect refers to the psychological effect resulted from the reduction of probability from certainty to probable . It is an idea introduced in prospect theory.Normally a reduction in probability of winning a reward Certainty effect refers to the psychological effect resulted from the...
and pseudocertainty effect
Pseudocertainty effect
The pseudocertainty effect is a concept from prospect theory. It refers to people's tendency to perceive an outcome as certain while in fact it is uncertain...
in which a sure gain is favored to a probabilistic gain (Clark, 2009), but a probabilistic loss is preferred to a definite loss (Tversky & Kahneman, 1981). For example, in Tversky and Kahneman's (1981) experiment, in the first problem, treatment A, which saved a sure 200 people, was favored due to the certainty effect.
Applications
Frame analysisFraming (social sciences)
A frame in social theory consists of a schema of interpretation — that is, a collection of anecdotes and stereotypes—that individuals rely on to understand and respond to events. In simpler terms, people build a series of mental filters through biological and cultural influences. They use these...
has been a significant part of scholarly work on topics like social movements and political opinion formation in both sociology
Sociology
Sociology is the study of society. It is a social science—a term with which it is sometimes synonymous—which uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about human social activity...
and political science
Political science
Political Science is a social science discipline concerned with the study of the state, government and politics. Aristotle defined it as the study of the state. It deals extensively with the theory and practice of politics, and the analysis of political systems and political behavior...
. Political options can be framed in a way that promotes voters to prefer a certain alternative. For instance, people prefer an economic agenda when high employment rates are provided, but they are against it when the complementary unemployment rates are accentuated (Druckman, 2001b). Additionally, Rugg (as cited in Plous, 1993) exhibited a framing effect in a poll in which the same option was expressed differently. Rugg (as cited in Plous, 1993) discovered that 62% of people disagreed with allowing public condemnation of democracy, but only 46% of people agreed to forbidding public condemnation. The framing effect accounts for the 16% disparity in these effectively congruent decisions (as cited in Plous, 1993). Therefore, framing could have negative social and political implications. Druckman (2001b) also conveys that these effects could discredit public opinion, rendering polls as dubious sources of information.
Certain types of payment options may also be able to employ the framing effect to encourage people to pay at an earlier date. For example, PhD students demonstrated susceptibility to framing when reminded to pay a mandatory registration fee (Gätcher Orzen, Renner, & Stamer, in press). Specifically, Gätcher et al. (in press) reported 93% of PhD students registered early when presented a loss frame, described as a penalty fee, as opposed to 67% students registering early when presented a positive frame in the form of a discount.
It has been argued that pretrial detention may increase a defendant's willingness to accept a plea bargain, since imprisonment, rather than freedom, will be his baseline, and pleading guilty will be viewed as an event that will cause his earlier release rather than as an event that will put him in prison.
Amelioration
One of the dangers of framing effects is that in reality, people are often only provided options within the context of one of the two frames (Druckman, 2001a). Furthermore, framing effects may persist even when monetary incentives are provided (Tversky & Kahneman, 1981). Thus, individuals' decisions may be malleable through manipulation with the framing effect, and the consequences of framing effects may be inescapable. However, Druckman (2001b) conveys that the framing effects and their societal implications may be emphasized more than they should be. This notion is reflected, as he demonstrated that the effects of framing can be reduced, or even eliminated, if ample, credible information is provided to people (Druckman, 2001b).See also
- Choice architectureChoice architectureChoice architecture describes the way in which decisions are influenced by how the choices are presented , and is a term used by Cass Sunstein and economist Richard Thaler in the 2008 book Nudge: Improving Decisions about Health, Wealth, and Happiness...
- Framing (social sciences)Framing (social sciences)A frame in social theory consists of a schema of interpretation — that is, a collection of anecdotes and stereotypes—that individuals rely on to understand and respond to events. In simpler terms, people build a series of mental filters through biological and cultural influences. They use these...
- Overton windowOverton windowThe Overton window, in political theory, describes a "window" in the range of public reactions to ideas in public discourse, in a spectrum of all possible options on a particular issue. It is named after its originator, Joseph P...
- Prospect theoryProspect theoryProspect theory is a theory that describes decisions between alternatives that involve risk i.e. where the probabilities of outcomes are known. The model is descriptive: it tries to model real-life choices, rather than optimal decisions.-Model:...
- Status quo biasStatus quo biasThe status quo bias is a cognitive bias for the status quo; in other words, people tend not to change an established behavior unless the incentive to change is compelling...