Fish meal
Encyclopedia
Fish meal, or fishmeal, is a commercial product made from both whole fish
and the bones and offal
from processed fish. It is a brown powder or cake obtained by rendering
pressing the cooked whole fish or fish trimmings to remove most of the fish oil
and water, and then ground. What remains is the "fishmeal".
Fishmeal is a nutrient-rich and high protein supplement feed ingredient used primarily in diets for domestic animals and sometimes used as a high-quality organic fertilizer.
at the beginning of the fourteenth century: 'they accustom their cattle, cows, sheep, camels and horses to feed upon dried fish, which being regularly served to them, they eat without any sign of dislike.’ The utilization of herring as an industrial raw material actually started as early as about 800 AD in Norway. A very primitive process of pressing the oil out of herring by means of wooden boards and stones was employed.
but is generally manufactured from wild-caught, small marine fish that contain a high percentage of bones and oil, and is usually deemed not suitable for direct human consumption. The fish caught for fishmeal purposes solely are termed “industrial”. Other sources of fishmeal is from by-catch of other fisheries and by-products of trimmings made during processing (fish waste or offal) of various seafood products destined for direct human consumption.
Virtually any fish or shellfish
in the sea can be used to make fishmeal, although there may be a few rare unexploited species which would produce a poisonous meal.
2. The fishery should preferably be based on more than one species in order to reduce the effect of fluctuations in supply of any one species.
3. The total abundance of long lived species varies less from year to year, and
4. Species with a high fat content are more profitable, because the fat in fish is held at the expense of water and not at the expense of protein .
Fishmeal is made by either cooking, pressing, drying and grinding of fish or fish waste to which no other matter has been added. It is a solid product from which most of the water is removed and some or all of the oil is removed. Four or five tonnes of fish are needed to manufacture one tonne of dry fishmeal.
There are several ways of making fishmeal from raw fish; the simplest way is to let the fish dry out in the sun. This method is still used in some parts of the world where processing plants are not available, nevertheless the end product is poor in comparison with ones made by modern methods.
Nowadays all the fish meal is made by the following processes:
Cooking -A commercial cooker is a long steam jacketed cylinder through which the fish are moved by a screw conveyor. This is a critical stage in preparing the fishmeal, as incomplete cooking means that the liquor from the fish cannot be pressed out satisfactorily and overcooking makes the material too soft for pressing. No drying occurs in the cooking stage.
Pressing -A perforated tube with increasing pressure is used for this process. This stage involves removing some of the oil and water from the material and the solid is known as Press cake. The water content in pressing is reduced from 70% to about 50% and oil is reduced to 4%.
Drying- It is important to get this stage of the process right. If the meal is under-dried, moulds or bacteria may grow. If it is over-dried, scorching may occur and this reduces the nutritional value of the meal.
Two main types of dryer: Direct and Indirect
Direct -Very hot air at a temperature of 500 °C (932 °F) is passed over the material as it is tumbled rapidly in a cylindrical drum. This is the quicker method, but heat damage is much more likely if the process is not carefully controlled.
Indirect -Cylinder containing steam heated discs which also tumble the meal.
Grinding -This is the last step in processing which involves the breakdown of any lumps or particles of bone are involved in this stage.
, but the nutritional value of the protein relates directly to its amino acid composition and digestibility. The amino acid profile of fishmeal is what makes this feed ingredient so attractive as a protein supplement
.High-quality fishmeal normally contains between 60% and 72% crude protein by weight. Typical diets for fish may contain from 32% to 45% total protein by weight. Another very important reason why fishmeal is sought after as an ingredient in aquaculture
diets is because it contains certain compounds that make the feed more acceptable and agreeable to the taste (palatable). This property allows for the feed to be ingested rapidly, and will reduce nutrient leaching. It is thought the non-essential amino acid glutamic acid is one of the compounds that imparts to fishmeal its palatability.
Fish lipids are also highly digestible by all species of animals and are excellent sources of the essential polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in both the omega-3 and omega-6 families of fatty acids. The predominant omega-3 fatty acids in fishmeal and fish oil are linolenic acid
, docosahexaenoic acid
(DHA), and eicosapentaenoic acid
(EPA). Essential fatty acids are necessary for normal larval development, fish growth, and reproduction. They are important in normal development of the skin, nervous system, brain, and visual acuity. PUFAs appear to assist the immune system in defense of disease agents and reduce the stress response. Fishmeal also contains valuable phospholipids, fat-soluble vitamins, and steroid hormones.
Such high digestibility of fish lipids means they can provide lots of usable energy. If a diet does not provide enough energy, the fish or shrimp will have to break down valuable protein for energy, which is expensive and can increase production of toxic ammonia. Fishmeal is considered to be a moderately rich source of vitamins of the B-complex especially cobalamine (B12), niacin
, choline
, pantothenic acid
, and riboflavin
.
High quality fishmeal provides a balanced amount of all essential amino aids, phospholipids and fatty acids required for optimum development, growth and reproduction especially of larvae
and broodstock
. The nutrients in fishmeal also aid in disease resistance by boosting and helping to maintain a healthy functional immune system. It also allows for formulation of nutrient-dense diets, which promote optimal growth.
Incorporation of fishmeal into diets of aquatic animals helps to reduce pollution from the waste water effluent by providing greater nutrient digestibility. The incorporation of high-quality fishmeal into feed imparts a 'natural or wholesome' characteristic to the final product, such as that provided by wild fish.
. In the past ships have sunk because of such fires. These days the danger is eliminated by adding antioxidants to fishmeal prior to storage or transportation.
predicts that the aquaculture
production will rise to a level of more than 80 million tonnes, while the wild catch still will be approximately 90 million tonnes. Sustainability is a major issue and further research and study is needed in this area to make effective decisions.
Despite the adverse effects, organisations like the Fishmeal Information Network (FIN) which is one source of contact for fishmeal and gives information on its supply chain and its role in the nutrition of farm livestock. FIN aims to present fact-based information, independent evidence and respected expert opinion on fishmeal and its use. It recognises the imperatives of safety in the food chain, healthy diets, animal welfare and protection of the environment.
FIN monitors two key areas
A. Legislation which governs fishmeal use in animal feed.
B. Contaminant issues and regulations that are, or are likely to impact on fishmeal, fish oil, wild finfish and farmed fish.
Such regulations and precautions will help companies better their products and will benefit the consumers greatly. More research into this area is needed to make effective decisions and to obtain optimal results.
Fish
Fish are a paraphyletic group of organisms that consist of all gill-bearing aquatic vertebrate animals that lack limbs with digits. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous and bony fish, as well as various extinct related groups...
and the bones and offal
Offal
Offal , also called, especially in the United States, variety meats or organ meats, refers to the internal organs and entrails of a butchered animal. The word does not refer to a particular list of edible organs, which varies by culture and region, but includes most internal organs other than...
from processed fish. It is a brown powder or cake obtained by rendering
Rendering (industrial)
Rendering is a process that converts waste animal tissue into stable, value-added materials. Rendering can refer to any processing of animal byproducts into more useful materials, or more narrowly to the rendering of whole animal fatty tissue into purified fats like lard or tallow...
pressing the cooked whole fish or fish trimmings to remove most of the fish oil
Fish oil
Fish oil is oil derived from the tissues of oily fish. Fish oils contain the omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid , and docosahexaenoic acid , precursors of certain eicosanoids that are known to reduce inflammation throughout the body, and are thought to have many health benefits.Fish do not...
and water, and then ground. What remains is the "fishmeal".
Fishmeal is a nutrient-rich and high protein supplement feed ingredient used primarily in diets for domestic animals and sometimes used as a high-quality organic fertilizer.
History
The use of fish by-products is not a new idea; it has been used in previous times to feed poultry, pigs and other farmed fish. A primitive form of fishmeal is mentioned in The Travels of Marco PoloThe Travels of Marco Polo
Books of the Marvels of the World or Description of the World , also nicknamed Il Milione or Oriente Poliano and commonly called The Travels of Marco Polo, is a 13th-century travelogue written down by Rustichello da Pisa from stories told by Marco Polo, describing the...
at the beginning of the fourteenth century: 'they accustom their cattle, cows, sheep, camels and horses to feed upon dried fish, which being regularly served to them, they eat without any sign of dislike.’ The utilization of herring as an industrial raw material actually started as early as about 800 AD in Norway. A very primitive process of pressing the oil out of herring by means of wooden boards and stones was employed.
Raw materials used
Fishmeal can be made from almost any type of seafoodSeafood
Seafood is any form of marine life regarded as food by humans. Seafoods include fish, molluscs , crustaceans , echinoderms . Edible sea plants, such as some seaweeds and microalgae, are also seafood, and are widely eaten around the world, especially in Asia...
but is generally manufactured from wild-caught, small marine fish that contain a high percentage of bones and oil, and is usually deemed not suitable for direct human consumption. The fish caught for fishmeal purposes solely are termed “industrial”. Other sources of fishmeal is from by-catch of other fisheries and by-products of trimmings made during processing (fish waste or offal) of various seafood products destined for direct human consumption.
Virtually any fish or shellfish
Shellfish
Shellfish is a culinary and fisheries term for exoskeleton-bearing aquatic invertebrates used as food, including various species of molluscs, crustaceans, and echinoderms. Although most kinds of shellfish are harvested from saltwater environments, some kinds are found only in freshwater...
in the sea can be used to make fishmeal, although there may be a few rare unexploited species which would produce a poisonous meal.
Selecting species
1. The species must be in large concentrations to give a high catching rate; this is essential because the value of industrial fish is less than that of fish for direct human consumption.2. The fishery should preferably be based on more than one species in order to reduce the effect of fluctuations in supply of any one species.
3. The total abundance of long lived species varies less from year to year, and
4. Species with a high fat content are more profitable, because the fat in fish is held at the expense of water and not at the expense of protein .
Production
There are several ways of making fishmeal from raw fish; the simplest way is to let the fish dry out in the sun. This method is still used in some parts of the world where processing plants are not available, nevertheless the end product is poor in comparison with ones made by modern methods.
Nowadays all the fish meal is made by the following processes:
Cooking -A commercial cooker is a long steam jacketed cylinder through which the fish are moved by a screw conveyor. This is a critical stage in preparing the fishmeal, as incomplete cooking means that the liquor from the fish cannot be pressed out satisfactorily and overcooking makes the material too soft for pressing. No drying occurs in the cooking stage.
Pressing -A perforated tube with increasing pressure is used for this process. This stage involves removing some of the oil and water from the material and the solid is known as Press cake. The water content in pressing is reduced from 70% to about 50% and oil is reduced to 4%.
Drying- It is important to get this stage of the process right. If the meal is under-dried, moulds or bacteria may grow. If it is over-dried, scorching may occur and this reduces the nutritional value of the meal.
Two main types of dryer: Direct and Indirect
Direct -Very hot air at a temperature of 500 °C (932 °F) is passed over the material as it is tumbled rapidly in a cylindrical drum. This is the quicker method, but heat damage is much more likely if the process is not carefully controlled.
Indirect -Cylinder containing steam heated discs which also tumble the meal.
Grinding -This is the last step in processing which involves the breakdown of any lumps or particles of bone are involved in this stage.
Nutrient composition
Any complete diet must contain some proteinProtein
Proteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of...
, but the nutritional value of the protein relates directly to its amino acid composition and digestibility. The amino acid profile of fishmeal is what makes this feed ingredient so attractive as a protein supplement
Protein supplement
Protein supplement may refer to:* Dietary supplements**Bodybuilding supplement* Protein bar...
.High-quality fishmeal normally contains between 60% and 72% crude protein by weight. Typical diets for fish may contain from 32% to 45% total protein by weight. Another very important reason why fishmeal is sought after as an ingredient in aquaculture
Aquaculture
Aquaculture, also known as aquafarming, is the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, molluscs and aquatic plants. Aquaculture involves cultivating freshwater and saltwater populations under controlled conditions, and can be contrasted with commercial fishing, which is the...
diets is because it contains certain compounds that make the feed more acceptable and agreeable to the taste (palatable). This property allows for the feed to be ingested rapidly, and will reduce nutrient leaching. It is thought the non-essential amino acid glutamic acid is one of the compounds that imparts to fishmeal its palatability.
Fish lipids are also highly digestible by all species of animals and are excellent sources of the essential polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in both the omega-3 and omega-6 families of fatty acids. The predominant omega-3 fatty acids in fishmeal and fish oil are linolenic acid
Linolenic acid
Linolenic acid can refer to either of two octadecatrienoic acids:*α-Linolenic acid, an ω-3 fatty acid found in many vegetable oils. The unmodified term linolenic acid most commonly refers to this substance.*γ-Linolenic acid, an ω-6 fatty acid...
, docosahexaenoic acid
Docosahexaenoic acid
Docosahexaenoic acid is an omega-3 fatty acid that is a primary structural component of the human brain and retina. In chemical structure, DHA is a carboxylic acid with a 22-carbon chain and six cis double bonds; the first double bond is located at the third carbon from the omega end...
(DHA), and eicosapentaenoic acid
Eicosapentaenoic acid
Eicosapentaenoic acid is an omega-3 fatty acid. In physiological literature, it is given the name 20:5. It also has the trivial name timnodonic acid...
(EPA). Essential fatty acids are necessary for normal larval development, fish growth, and reproduction. They are important in normal development of the skin, nervous system, brain, and visual acuity. PUFAs appear to assist the immune system in defense of disease agents and reduce the stress response. Fishmeal also contains valuable phospholipids, fat-soluble vitamins, and steroid hormones.
Such high digestibility of fish lipids means they can provide lots of usable energy. If a diet does not provide enough energy, the fish or shrimp will have to break down valuable protein for energy, which is expensive and can increase production of toxic ammonia. Fishmeal is considered to be a moderately rich source of vitamins of the B-complex especially cobalamine (B12), niacin
Niacin
"Niacin" redirects here. For the neo-fusion band, see Niacin .Niacin is an organic compound with the formula and, depending on the definition used, one of the forty to eighty essential human nutrients.Niacin is one of five vitamins associated with a pandemic deficiency disease: niacin deficiency...
, choline
Choline
Choline is a water-soluble essential nutrient. It is usually grouped within the B-complex vitamins. Choline generally refers to the various quaternary ammonium salts containing the N,N,N-trimethylethanolammonium cation....
, pantothenic acid
Pantothenic acid
Pantothenic acid, also called pantothenate or vitamin B5 , is a water-soluble vitamin. For many animals, pantothenic acid is an essential nutrient. Animals require pantothenic acid to synthesize coenzyme-A , as well as to synthesize and metabolize proteins, carbohydrates, and fats.Pantothenic acid...
, and riboflavin
Riboflavin
Riboflavin, also known as vitamin B2 or additive E101, is an easily absorbed micronutrient with a key role in maintaining health in humans and animals. It is the central component of the cofactors FAD and FMN, and is therefore required by all flavoproteins. As such, vitamin B2 is required for a...
.
Benefits
Fishmeal in diets increase feed efficiency and growth through better food palatability and enhances nutrient uptake, digestion and absorption. The balanced amino acid composition of fishmeal complements and provides synergistic effects with other animal and vegetable proteins in the diet to promote fast growth and reduce feeding costs.High quality fishmeal provides a balanced amount of all essential amino aids, phospholipids and fatty acids required for optimum development, growth and reproduction especially of larvae
Larvae
In Roman mythology, lemures were shades or spirits of the restless or malignant dead, and are probably cognate with an extended sense of larvae as disturbing or frightening...
and broodstock
Broodstock
Broodstock, or broodfish, are a group of mature individuals used in aquaculture for breeding purposes. Broodstock can be a population of animals maintained in captivity as a source of replacement for, or enhancement of, seed and fry numbers. These are generally kept in ponds or tanks in which...
. The nutrients in fishmeal also aid in disease resistance by boosting and helping to maintain a healthy functional immune system. It also allows for formulation of nutrient-dense diets, which promote optimal growth.
Incorporation of fishmeal into diets of aquatic animals helps to reduce pollution from the waste water effluent by providing greater nutrient digestibility. The incorporation of high-quality fishmeal into feed imparts a 'natural or wholesome' characteristic to the final product, such as that provided by wild fish.
Ecological links
Aquaculture's heavy reliance on wild caught seed and broodstock is of increasing concern. Fishmeal and its source of raw materials and costs are highly debated by scientists and conservationists. Since fishmeal uses wild fish stock to feed farmed fish, this places direct pressure on fisheries resources. Indirect effects are also apparent such as diminishing wild fisheries, habitat modification and food web interactions. There is also the possibility of trace contaminants in the feed which will cause diseases and fish mortality.Economy
About 23.13 million tonnes of compound aquafeeds were produced in 2005 of which approximately 42 percent was consumed by aquaculture. The aquaculture sector consumed approximately 3.06 million tonnes or 56 percent of world fishmeal production and 0.78 million tonnes or 87 percent of total fish oil production in 2006 with over 50 percent of fish oil going into salmonid diets. Increasing prices of fishmeal, fish oil, grains and other feed ingredients, and also fuel and energy will certainly affect the cost of aquaculture production. With such a scenario can aquaculture farms be economically viable or sustainable? Sustainability remains a concern, however, even more so when the demand for aquaculture products is outstripping the supply, and prices soar so that even inefficient farms might make money.Risks
Unmodified fish meal can spontaneously combustSpontaneous combustion
Spontaneous combustion is the self-ignition of a mass, for example, a pile of oily rags. Allegedly, humans can also ignite and burn without an obvious cause; this phenomenon is known as spontaneous human combustion....
. In the past ships have sunk because of such fires. These days the danger is eliminated by adding antioxidants to fishmeal prior to storage or transportation.
Future
According to FAO's statistics (FAO 2002) and their future predictions, wild capture will decrease slightly in the years to come. In 2030 SOFIASofia
Sofia is the capital and largest city of Bulgaria and the 12th largest city in the European Union with a population of 1.27 million people. It is located in western Bulgaria, at the foot of Mount Vitosha and approximately at the centre of the Balkan Peninsula.Prehistoric settlements were excavated...
predicts that the aquaculture
production will rise to a level of more than 80 million tonnes, while the wild catch still will be approximately 90 million tonnes. Sustainability is a major issue and further research and study is needed in this area to make effective decisions.
Despite the adverse effects, organisations like the Fishmeal Information Network (FIN) which is one source of contact for fishmeal and gives information on its supply chain and its role in the nutrition of farm livestock. FIN aims to present fact-based information, independent evidence and respected expert opinion on fishmeal and its use. It recognises the imperatives of safety in the food chain, healthy diets, animal welfare and protection of the environment.
FIN monitors two key areas
A. Legislation which governs fishmeal use in animal feed.
B. Contaminant issues and regulations that are, or are likely to impact on fishmeal, fish oil, wild finfish and farmed fish.
Such regulations and precautions will help companies better their products and will benefit the consumers greatly. More research into this area is needed to make effective decisions and to obtain optimal results.
Main fishmeal producing countries
- Peru: anchovyAnchovyAnchovies are a family of small, common salt-water forage fish. There are 144 species in 17 genera, found in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans. Anchovies are usually classified as an oily fish.-Description:...
- Chile: anchovyAnchovyAnchovies are a family of small, common salt-water forage fish. There are 144 species in 17 genera, found in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans. Anchovies are usually classified as an oily fish.-Description:...
, horse mackerelHorse mackerelA horse mackerel is a large fish, such as the tuna, and the scad or saurel of the Pacific coast:*Australian bonito *various Jack mackerels*Pilot fish... - China: various species
- Thailand: various species
- United States: menhadenMenhadenMenhaden, also known as mossbunker, bunker and pogy, are forage fish of the genera Brevoortia and Ethmidium, two genera of marine fish in the family Clupeidae.-Description:...
, pollockPollockPollock is the common name used for either of the two species of marine fish in the Pollachius genus. Both P. pollachius and P. virens are commonly referred to as pollock. Other names for P... - European Union: various species
- Iceland and Norway: capelinCapelinThe capelin or caplin, Mallotus villosus, is a small forage fish of the smelt family found in the Atlantic and Arctic oceans. In summer, it grazes on dense swarms of plankton at the edge of the ice shelf. Larger capelin also eat a great deal of krill and other crustaceans...
, herringsHerringsHerrings may refer to:*Herrings, New York, a village*Herring, a sort of fish...
, bluewhiting - Denmark: poutPoutPout may refer to:* A facial expression* a commune in Thiès Region, western Senegal* Trisopterus luscus or Pouting, a fish in the Gadidae family* Ocean pout, a kind of eelpout in the family Zoarcidae...
, sandeel, sprat - Japan: sardineSardineSardines, or pilchards, are several types of small, oily fish related to herrings, family Clupeidae. Sardines are named after the Mediterranean island of Sardinia, around which they were once abundant....
, pilchard - South Africa: pilchard