Ethical dilemma
Encyclopedia
An Ethical dilemma is a complex situation that will often involve an apparent mental conflict between moral imperative
s, in which to obey one would result in transgressing another.
This is also called an ethical paradox since in moral philosophy, paradox often plays a central role in ethics debates. "Love your neighbour" (Gospel of Matthew
5:43) is sometimes in contradiction to an armed rapist: if he succeeds, you will not be able to love him. But to pre-emptively
restrain them is not usually understood as loving. This is one of the classic examples of an ethical decision
clashing or conflicting with an organismic decision, one that would be made only from the perspective of animal survival: an animal is thought to act only in its immediate perceived bodily self-interests when faced with bodily harm
, and to have limited ability to perceive alternatives - see fight-or-flight response
.
However, human beings have complex social relationships that can't be ignored: If one has an ethical relationship
with the neighbour trying to kill you, then, usually, their desire to kill you would likely be the result of mental illness
on their part, stories told to them by others. Such conflicts might be settled by some other path that has strong social support. Societies formed criminal justice
systems (some argue also ethical traditions and religion
s) to defuse just such deep conflicts. Such systems always impose trained judges who are presumed to have an ethical relationship and also a clear obligation to all who come before them.
These arguments can be refuted in various ways, for example by showing that the claimed ethical dilemma is only apparent and does not really exist (thus is not a paradox
logically), or that the solution to the ethical dilemma involves choosing the greater good and lesser evil (as discussed in value theory
), or that the whole framing
of the problem is omitting creative alternatives (as in peacemaking
), or (more recently) that situational ethics or situated ethics
must apply because the case cannot be removed from context and still be understood. See also case-based reasoning
on this process. An alternative to situational ethics is graded absolutism
.
There are many examples of moral dilemmas; for instance, a more up-to-date dilemma is abortion (see also abortion debate
). A woman who has been raped but found out that she is now pregnant from the rapist can choose whether to abort or to keep the fetus. The question is whether the fetus has rights and, if so, how they are to be balanced against the right of the mother. A further confounding factor is that pregnancy may threaten the life of the mother, thus implicating the mother's right to life, rather than her rights of bodily integrity and personal choice.
Perhaps the most commonly cited ethical conflict is that between an imperative or injunction not to steal and one to care for a family that you cannot afford to feed without stolen money. Debates on this often revolve around the availability of alternate means of income or support such as a social safety net
, charity
, etc. The debate is in its starkest form when framed as stealing food. In Les Misérables
Jean Valjean does this and is relentlessly pursued. Under an ethical system in which stealing is always wrong and letting one's family die from starvation is always wrong, a person in such a situation would be forced to commit one wrong to avoid committing another, and be in constant conflict with those whose view of the acts varied.
However, there are few legitimate ethical systems in which stealing is more wrong than letting one's family die. Ethical systems do in fact allow for, and sometimes outline, tradeoffs or priorities in decisions. Some have suggested that international law
requires this kind of mechanism to resolve whether World Trade Organization
(WTO) or Kyoto Protocol
takes precedence in deciding whether a WTO notification is valid. That is, whether nations may use trade mechanisms to complain about climate change
measures.
As there are few economies that can operate smoothly in a chaotic climate, the dilemma would seem to be easy to resolve, but since fallacious justifications for restricting trade are easily imagined, just as fallacious justifications for theft are easily imagined at the family level, the seemingly obvious resolution becomes clouded by the suspicion of an illegitimate motive. Resolving ethical dilemmas is rarely simple or clearcut and very often involves revisiting similar dilemmas that recur within societies:
According to some philosophers and sociologists, e.g. Karl Marx
, it is the different life experience of people and the different exposure of them and their families in these roles (the rich being constantly stolen from, the poor in a position of constant begging and subordination) that creates social class
differences. In other words, ethical dilemmas can become political and economic factions that engage in long term recurring struggles. 'See conflict theory
and left-wing politics
versus right-wing politics
.
Design of a voting system
, other electoral reform
, a criminal justice
system, or other high-stakes adversarial process
for dispute resolution
will almost always reflect the deep persistent struggles involved. However, no amount of good intent and hard work can undo a bad role structure:
is involved, dilemmas will very often recur. A trivial example is working with a bad operating system
whose error messages do not match the problems the user perceives. Each such error presents the user with a dilemma: reboot the machine and continue working at one's employment or spend time trying to reproduce the problem for the benefit of the developer of the operating system.
So role structure sabotages feedback and results in sub-optimal results since provision has been made to actually reward people for reporting these errors and problems.
See total quality management
for more on addressing this kind of failure and governance
on how many ethical and structural conflicts can be resolved with appropriate supervisory mechanisms.
Moral imperative
A moral imperative is a principle originating inside a person's mind that compels that person to act. It is a kind of categorical imperative, as defined by Immanuel Kant. Kant took the imperative to be a dictate of pure reason, in its practical aspect. Not following the moral law was seen to be...
s, in which to obey one would result in transgressing another.
This is also called an ethical paradox since in moral philosophy, paradox often plays a central role in ethics debates. "Love your neighbour" (Gospel of Matthew
Gospel of Matthew
The Gospel According to Matthew is one of the four canonical gospels, one of the three synoptic gospels, and the first book of the New Testament. It tells of the life, ministry, death, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth...
5:43) is sometimes in contradiction to an armed rapist: if he succeeds, you will not be able to love him. But to pre-emptively
Preemptive strike
A preemptive strike refers to a surprise attack launched with the stated intention of countering an anticipated enemy offensive. Preemptive strike may also refer to:...
restrain them is not usually understood as loving. This is one of the classic examples of an ethical decision
Ethical decision
In the context of decision making, your ethics are your personal standards of right and wrong. They are your basis for making ethically sensitive decisions.- Ethics vs. Morals :The words 'ethics' and 'morals' are frequently used interchangeably....
clashing or conflicting with an organismic decision, one that would be made only from the perspective of animal survival: an animal is thought to act only in its immediate perceived bodily self-interests when faced with bodily harm
Bodily harm
Bodily harm is a legal term of art used in the definition of both statutory and common law offences in Australia, Canada, England and Wales and other common law jurisdictions. It is a synonym for injury or bodily injury and similar expressions, though it may be used with a precise and limited...
, and to have limited ability to perceive alternatives - see fight-or-flight response
Fight-or-flight response
The fight-or-flight response was first described by Walter Bradford Cannon....
.
However, human beings have complex social relationships that can't be ignored: If one has an ethical relationship
Ethical relationship
An ethical relationship, in most theories of ethics that employ the term, is a basic and trustworthy relationship that one has to another human being, that cannot necessarily be characterized in terms of any abstraction other than trust and common protection of each other's body...
with the neighbour trying to kill you, then, usually, their desire to kill you would likely be the result of mental illness
Mental illness
A mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern generally associated with subjective distress or disability that occurs in an individual, and which is not a part of normal development or culture. Such a disorder may consist of a combination of affective, behavioural,...
on their part, stories told to them by others. Such conflicts might be settled by some other path that has strong social support. Societies formed criminal justice
Criminal justice
Criminal Justice is the system of practices and institutions of governments directed at upholding social control, deterring and mitigating crime, or sanctioning those who violate laws with criminal penalties and rehabilitation efforts...
systems (some argue also ethical traditions and religion
Religion
Religion is a collection of cultural systems, belief systems, and worldviews that establishes symbols that relate humanity to spirituality and, sometimes, to moral values. Many religions have narratives, symbols, traditions and sacred histories that are intended to give meaning to life or to...
s) to defuse just such deep conflicts. Such systems always impose trained judges who are presumed to have an ethical relationship and also a clear obligation to all who come before them.
Responses to the arguments
Ethical dilemmas are often cited in an attempt to refute an ethical system or moral code, as well as the worldview that encompasses or grows from it.These arguments can be refuted in various ways, for example by showing that the claimed ethical dilemma is only apparent and does not really exist (thus is not a paradox
Paradox
Similar to Circular reasoning, A paradox is a seemingly true statement or group of statements that lead to a contradiction or a situation which seems to defy logic or intuition...
logically), or that the solution to the ethical dilemma involves choosing the greater good and lesser evil (as discussed in value theory
Value theory
Value theory encompasses a range of approaches to understanding how, why and to what degree people should value things; whether the thing is a person, idea, object, or anything else. This investigation began in ancient philosophy, where it is called axiology or ethics. Early philosophical...
), or that the whole framing
Framing
Framing or enframing may refer to:* Framing , the most common carpentry work* Framing or Framing effect , terminology used in communication theory, sociology, and other disciplines where it relates to the construction and presentation of a fact or issue "framed" from a particular perspective*...
of the problem is omitting creative alternatives (as in peacemaking
Peacemaking
Peacemaking is a form of conflict resolution which focuses on establishing equal power relationships that will be robust enough to forestall future conflict, and establishing some means of agreeing on ethical decisions within a community that has previously had conflict. In order to do so there...
), or (more recently) that situational ethics or situated ethics
Situated ethics
Situated ethics, often confused with situational ethics, is a view of applied ethics in which abstract standards from a culture or theory are considered to be far less important than the ongoing processes in which one is personally and physically involved, e.g. climate, ecosystem, etc...
must apply because the case cannot be removed from context and still be understood. See also case-based reasoning
Case-based reasoning
Case-based reasoning , broadly construed, is the process of solving new problems based on the solutions of similar past problems. An auto mechanic who fixes an engine by recalling another car that exhibited similar symptoms is using case-based reasoning...
on this process. An alternative to situational ethics is graded absolutism
Graded absolutism
Graded absolutism is a theory of moral absolutism which resolves the objection to absolutism that in moral conflicts we are obligated to opposites. Moral absolutism is the ethical view that certain actions are absolutely right or wrong regardless of other contexts such as their consequences or the...
.
There are many examples of moral dilemmas; for instance, a more up-to-date dilemma is abortion (see also abortion debate
Abortion debate
The abortion debate refers to discussion and controversy surrounding the moral and legal status of abortion. The two main groups involved in the abortion debate are the self-described "pro-choice" movement and the "pro-life" movement...
). A woman who has been raped but found out that she is now pregnant from the rapist can choose whether to abort or to keep the fetus. The question is whether the fetus has rights and, if so, how they are to be balanced against the right of the mother. A further confounding factor is that pregnancy may threaten the life of the mother, thus implicating the mother's right to life, rather than her rights of bodily integrity and personal choice.
Perhaps the most commonly cited ethical conflict is that between an imperative or injunction not to steal and one to care for a family that you cannot afford to feed without stolen money. Debates on this often revolve around the availability of alternate means of income or support such as a social safety net
Social safety net
Social safety nets, or "socioeconomic safety nets", are non-contributory transfer programs seeking to prevent the poor or those vulnerable to shocks and poverty from falling below a certain poverty level. Safety net programs can be provided by the public sector or by the private sector...
, charity
Charitable organization
A charitable organization is a type of non-profit organization . It differs from other types of NPOs in that it centers on philanthropic goals A charitable organization is a type of non-profit organization (NPO). It differs from other types of NPOs in that it centers on philanthropic goals A...
, etc. The debate is in its starkest form when framed as stealing food. In Les Misérables
Les Misérables
Les Misérables , translated variously from the French as The Miserable Ones, The Wretched, The Poor Ones, The Wretched Poor, or The Victims), is an 1862 French novel by author Victor Hugo and is widely considered one of the greatest novels of the nineteenth century...
Jean Valjean does this and is relentlessly pursued. Under an ethical system in which stealing is always wrong and letting one's family die from starvation is always wrong, a person in such a situation would be forced to commit one wrong to avoid committing another, and be in constant conflict with those whose view of the acts varied.
However, there are few legitimate ethical systems in which stealing is more wrong than letting one's family die. Ethical systems do in fact allow for, and sometimes outline, tradeoffs or priorities in decisions. Some have suggested that international law
International law
Public international law concerns the structure and conduct of sovereign states; analogous entities, such as the Holy See; and intergovernmental organizations. To a lesser degree, international law also may affect multinational corporations and individuals, an impact increasingly evolving beyond...
requires this kind of mechanism to resolve whether World Trade Organization
World Trade Organization
The World Trade Organization is an organization that intends to supervise and liberalize international trade. The organization officially commenced on January 1, 1995 under the Marrakech Agreement, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade , which commenced in 1948...
(WTO) or Kyoto Protocol
Kyoto Protocol
The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , aimed at fighting global warming...
takes precedence in deciding whether a WTO notification is valid. That is, whether nations may use trade mechanisms to complain about climate change
Climate change
Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It may be a change in average weather conditions or the distribution of events around that average...
measures.
As there are few economies that can operate smoothly in a chaotic climate, the dilemma would seem to be easy to resolve, but since fallacious justifications for restricting trade are easily imagined, just as fallacious justifications for theft are easily imagined at the family level, the seemingly obvious resolution becomes clouded by the suspicion of an illegitimate motive. Resolving ethical dilemmas is rarely simple or clearcut and very often involves revisiting similar dilemmas that recur within societies:
According to some philosophers and sociologists, e.g. Karl Marx
Karl Marx
Karl Heinrich Marx was a German philosopher, economist, sociologist, historian, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. His ideas played a significant role in the development of social science and the socialist political movement...
, it is the different life experience of people and the different exposure of them and their families in these roles (the rich being constantly stolen from, the poor in a position of constant begging and subordination) that creates social class
Social class
Social classes are economic or cultural arrangements of groups in society. Class is an essential object of analysis for sociologists, political scientists, economists, anthropologists and social historians. In the social sciences, social class is often discussed in terms of 'social stratification'...
differences. In other words, ethical dilemmas can become political and economic factions that engage in long term recurring struggles. 'See conflict theory
Conflict theory
Conflict theories are perspectives in social science that emphasize the social, political or material inequality of a social group, that critique the broad socio-political system, or that otherwise detract from structural functionalism and ideological conservativism...
and left-wing politics
Left-wing politics
In politics, Left, left-wing and leftist generally refer to support for social change to create a more egalitarian society...
versus right-wing politics
Right-wing politics
In politics, Right, right-wing and rightist generally refer to support for a hierarchical society justified on the basis of an appeal to natural law or tradition. To varying degrees, the Right rejects the egalitarian objectives of left-wing politics, claiming that the imposition of equality is...
.
Design of a voting system
Voting system
A voting system or electoral system is a method by which voters make a choice between options, often in an election or on a policy referendum....
, other electoral reform
Electoral reform
Electoral reform is change in electoral systems to improve how public desires are expressed in election results. That can include reforms of:...
, a criminal justice
Criminal justice
Criminal Justice is the system of practices and institutions of governments directed at upholding social control, deterring and mitigating crime, or sanctioning those who violate laws with criminal penalties and rehabilitation efforts...
system, or other high-stakes adversarial process
Adversarial process
An adversarial process is one that supports conflicting one-sided positions held by individuals, groups or entire societies, as inputs into the conflict resolution situation, typically with rewards for prevailing in the outcome...
for dispute resolution
Dispute resolution
Dispute resolution is the process of resolving disputes between parties.-Methods:Methods of dispute resolution include:* lawsuits * arbitration* collaborative law* mediation* conciliation* many types of negotiation* facilitation...
will almost always reflect the deep persistent struggles involved. However, no amount of good intent and hard work can undo a bad role structure:
Roles within structures
Where a structural conflictSocial conflict theory
Social conflict theory is a Marxist-based social theory which argues that individuals and groups within society have differing amounts of material and non-material resources Social conflict theory is a Marxist-based social theory which argues that individuals and groups (social classes) within...
is involved, dilemmas will very often recur. A trivial example is working with a bad operating system
Operating system
An operating system is a set of programs that manage computer hardware resources and provide common services for application software. The operating system is the most important type of system software in a computer system...
whose error messages do not match the problems the user perceives. Each such error presents the user with a dilemma: reboot the machine and continue working at one's employment or spend time trying to reproduce the problem for the benefit of the developer of the operating system.
So role structure sabotages feedback and results in sub-optimal results since provision has been made to actually reward people for reporting these errors and problems.
See total quality management
Total Quality Management
Total quality management or TQM is an integrative philosophy of management for continuously improving the quality of products and processes....
for more on addressing this kind of failure and governance
Governance
Governance is the act of governing. It relates to decisions that define expectations, grant power, or verify performance. It consists of either a separate process or part of management or leadership processes...
on how many ethical and structural conflicts can be resolved with appropriate supervisory mechanisms.
Examples
- Plank of CarneadesPlank of CarneadesIn ethics, the plank of Carneades is a thought experiment first proposed by Carneades of Cyrene; it explores the concept of self-defense in relation to murder....
- Samaritan's dilemmaSamaritan's dilemmaSamaritan's Dilemma refers to a dilemma in the act of charity. It hinges on the idea that when presented with charity, in some location such as a soup kitchen, a person will act in one of two ways: using the charity to improve their situation, or coming to rely on charity as a means of survival.The...
- Trolley problemTrolley problemThe trolley problem is a thought experiment in ethics, first introduced by Philippa Foot, but also extensively analysed by Judith Jarvis Thomson, Peter Unger, and Frances Kamm...
- Violinist (thought experiment)Violinist (Thought Experiment)The Violinist is a famous thought experiment first posed by Judith Jarvis Thomson in 1971.-The "famous violinist" thought experiment:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy describes her thought experiment as follows:...
- Prisoner's dilemmaPrisoner's dilemmaThe prisoner’s dilemma is a canonical example of a game, analyzed in game theory that shows why two individuals might not cooperate, even if it appears that it is in their best interest to do so. It was originally framed by Merrill Flood and Melvin Dresher working at RAND in 1950. Albert W...
- Abortion debateAbortion debateThe abortion debate refers to discussion and controversy surrounding the moral and legal status of abortion. The two main groups involved in the abortion debate are the self-described "pro-choice" movement and the "pro-life" movement...
- Graded absolutismGraded absolutismGraded absolutism is a theory of moral absolutism which resolves the objection to absolutism that in moral conflicts we are obligated to opposites. Moral absolutism is the ethical view that certain actions are absolutely right or wrong regardless of other contexts such as their consequences or the...