Estonian vocabulary
Encyclopedia
The Estonian vocabulary, i.e., the vocabulary
of the Estonian language
, was influenced by many other language groups.
, mainly from Low Saxon (Middle Low German
) during the period of German rule, and High German (including standard German
). The percentage of Low Saxon and High German loanwords can be estimated at 22–25 percent, with Low Saxon making up about 15 percent.
, Urschöpfung, i.e. they created new words out of nothing. Examples are Ado Grenzstein's coinages kabe ‘draughts, chequers’ and male ‘chess’.
The most famous reformer of Estonian, Johannes Aavik
(1880–1973), also used creations ex nihilo (cf. ‘free constructions’, Tauli 1977), along with other sources of lexical enrichment such as derivations, compositions and loanwords (often from Finnish; cf. Saareste and Raun 1965: 76). Aavik belonged to the so-called Noor-Eesti (‘Young Estonia’) movement, which appeared in Tartu, a university town in south-eastern Estonia, around 1905 (for discussion, see Raun 1991). In Aavik’s dictionary (1921), which lists approximately 4000 words, there are many words which were (allegedly) created ex nihilo. Consider • ese ‘object’, • kolp ‘skull’, • liibuma ‘to cling’, • naasma ‘to return, come back’, • nõme ‘stupid, dull’, • range ‘strict’, • reetma ‘to betray’, • solge ‘slim, flexible, graceful’ (which did not gain currency, cf. Contemporary Estonian graatsiline ‘graceful’, although the word itself, interestingly, is used for a certain kind of parasitic worm, namely the Ascaris lumbricoides
), and • veenma ‘to convince’. Other Aavikisms ex nihilo (not appearing in Aavik 1921) include • nentima ‘to admit, state’, • nördima ‘to grow indignant’, • süüme ‘conscience’, and • tõik ‘fact’."
Note, however, that many of the coinages that have been considered (often by Aavik himself) as words concocted ex nihilo could well have been influenced by foreign lexical items, for example words from Russian
, German
, French
, Finnish
, English
and Swedish
. Aavik had a broad classical education and knew Ancient Greek
, Latin
and French
. Consider • relv ‘weapon’ versus English
revolver, • roim ‘crime’ versus English
crime, • siiras ‘sincere’ versus English
sincere/serious • embama ‘to embrace’ versus English
embrace, and • taunima ‘to condemn, disapprove’ versus Finnish
tuomita ‘to judge’ (these Aavikisms appear in Aavik’s 1921 dictionary). Consider also • evima ‘to have, possess, own’ (cf. also Estonian omama ‘to own’, and mul on, lit. ‘to me is’, i.e. ‘for me there is’, meaning ‘I have’) versus English
have; • laup ‘forehead’ versus Russian
лоб lob ‘forehead’; • mõrv ‘murder’ and mõrvama ‘to murder’ versus English
murder (these Aavikisms do not appear in Aavik 1921); and • laip ‘corpse’ versus German
Leib ‘body’ and German
Leiche ‘body, corpse’. These words might be better regarded as a peculiar manifestation of morpho-phonemic adaptation of a foreign lexical item. The often irregular and arbitrary sound changes could then be explained not as subconscious foreign influence but rather as conscious manipulation by the coiner. Aavik seems to have paid little attention to the origin of his neologisms. On occasion, he replaced existing native words or expressions with neologisms of foreign descent. Therefore, Aavik cannot be considered a purist
in the traditional sense, i.e. he was not ‘anti-foreignisms/loanwords’ as such.
Vocabulary
A person's vocabulary is the set of words within a language that are familiar to that person. A vocabulary usually develops with age, and serves as a useful and fundamental tool for communication and acquiring knowledge...
of the Estonian language
Estonian language
Estonian is the official language of Estonia, spoken by about 1.1 million people in Estonia and tens of thousands in various émigré communities...
, was influenced by many other language groups.
Germanic languages
The heaviest external contribution, nearly one third of the vocabulary, comes from Germanic languagesGermanic languages
The Germanic languages constitute a sub-branch of the Indo-European language family. The common ancestor of all of the languages in this branch is called Proto-Germanic , which was spoken in approximately the mid-1st millennium BC in Iron Age northern Europe...
, mainly from Low Saxon (Middle Low German
Middle Low German
Middle Low German is a language that is the descendant of Old Saxon and is the ancestor of modern Low German. It served as the international lingua franca of the Hanseatic League...
) during the period of German rule, and High German (including standard German
Standard German
Standard German is the standard variety of the German language used as a written language, in formal contexts, and for communication between different dialect areas...
). The percentage of Low Saxon and High German loanwords can be estimated at 22–25 percent, with Low Saxon making up about 15 percent.
Ex nihilo lexical enrichment
Estonian language planners such as Ado Grenzstein (a journalist active in Estonia in the 1870s–90s) tried to use formation ex nihiloEx nihilo
Ex nihilo is a Latin phrase meaning "out of nothing". It often appears in conjunction with the concept of creation, as in creatio ex nihilo, meaning "creation out of nothing"—chiefly in philosophical or theological contexts, but also occurs in other fields.In theology, the common phrase creatio ex...
, Urschöpfung, i.e. they created new words out of nothing. Examples are Ado Grenzstein's coinages kabe ‘draughts, chequers’ and male ‘chess’.
The most famous reformer of Estonian, Johannes Aavik
Johannes Aavik
Johannes Aavik was an Estonian philologist and Fennophile who played a significant role in the modernization and development of the Estonian language.-Education and career:...
(1880–1973), also used creations ex nihilo (cf. ‘free constructions’, Tauli 1977), along with other sources of lexical enrichment such as derivations, compositions and loanwords (often from Finnish; cf. Saareste and Raun 1965: 76). Aavik belonged to the so-called Noor-Eesti (‘Young Estonia’) movement, which appeared in Tartu, a university town in south-eastern Estonia, around 1905 (for discussion, see Raun 1991). In Aavik’s dictionary (1921), which lists approximately 4000 words, there are many words which were (allegedly) created ex nihilo. Consider • ese ‘object’, • kolp ‘skull’, • liibuma ‘to cling’, • naasma ‘to return, come back’, • nõme ‘stupid, dull’, • range ‘strict’, • reetma ‘to betray’, • solge ‘slim, flexible, graceful’ (which did not gain currency, cf. Contemporary Estonian graatsiline ‘graceful’, although the word itself, interestingly, is used for a certain kind of parasitic worm, namely the Ascaris lumbricoides
Ascaris lumbricoides
Ascaris lumbricoides is the giant roundworm of humans, belonging to the phylum Nematoda. An ascarid nematode, it is responsible for the disease ascariasis in humans, and it is the largest and most common parasitic worm in humans. One-sixth of the human population is estimated to be infected by this...
), and • veenma ‘to convince’. Other Aavikisms ex nihilo (not appearing in Aavik 1921) include • nentima ‘to admit, state’, • nördima ‘to grow indignant’, • süüme ‘conscience’, and • tõik ‘fact’."
Note, however, that many of the coinages that have been considered (often by Aavik himself) as words concocted ex nihilo could well have been influenced by foreign lexical items, for example words from Russian
Russian language
Russian is a Slavic language used primarily in Russia, Belarus, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. It is an unofficial but widely spoken language in Ukraine, Moldova, Latvia, Turkmenistan and Estonia and, to a lesser extent, the other countries that were once constituent republics...
, German
German language
German is a West Germanic language, related to and classified alongside English and Dutch. With an estimated 90 – 98 million native speakers, German is one of the world's major languages and is the most widely-spoken first language in the European Union....
, French
French language
French is a Romance language spoken as a first language in France, the Romandy region in Switzerland, Wallonia and Brussels in Belgium, Monaco, the regions of Quebec and Acadia in Canada, and by various communities elsewhere. Second-language speakers of French are distributed throughout many parts...
, Finnish
Finnish language
Finnish is the language spoken by the majority of the population in Finland Primarily for use by restaurant menus and by ethnic Finns outside Finland. It is one of the two official languages of Finland and an official minority language in Sweden. In Sweden, both standard Finnish and Meänkieli, a...
, English
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
and Swedish
Swedish language
Swedish is a North Germanic language, spoken by approximately 10 million people, predominantly in Sweden and parts of Finland, especially along its coast and on the Åland islands. It is largely mutually intelligible with Norwegian and Danish...
. Aavik had a broad classical education and knew Ancient Greek
Ancient Greek
Ancient Greek is the stage of the Greek language in the periods spanning the times c. 9th–6th centuries BC, , c. 5th–4th centuries BC , and the c. 3rd century BC – 6th century AD of ancient Greece and the ancient world; being predated in the 2nd millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek...
, Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
and French
French language
French is a Romance language spoken as a first language in France, the Romandy region in Switzerland, Wallonia and Brussels in Belgium, Monaco, the regions of Quebec and Acadia in Canada, and by various communities elsewhere. Second-language speakers of French are distributed throughout many parts...
. Consider • relv ‘weapon’ versus English
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
revolver, • roim ‘crime’ versus English
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
crime, • siiras ‘sincere’ versus English
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
sincere/serious • embama ‘to embrace’ versus English
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
embrace, and • taunima ‘to condemn, disapprove’ versus Finnish
Finnish language
Finnish is the language spoken by the majority of the population in Finland Primarily for use by restaurant menus and by ethnic Finns outside Finland. It is one of the two official languages of Finland and an official minority language in Sweden. In Sweden, both standard Finnish and Meänkieli, a...
tuomita ‘to judge’ (these Aavikisms appear in Aavik’s 1921 dictionary). Consider also • evima ‘to have, possess, own’ (cf. also Estonian omama ‘to own’, and mul on, lit. ‘to me is’, i.e. ‘for me there is’, meaning ‘I have’) versus English
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
have; • laup ‘forehead’ versus Russian
Russian language
Russian is a Slavic language used primarily in Russia, Belarus, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. It is an unofficial but widely spoken language in Ukraine, Moldova, Latvia, Turkmenistan and Estonia and, to a lesser extent, the other countries that were once constituent republics...
лоб lob ‘forehead’; • mõrv ‘murder’ and mõrvama ‘to murder’ versus English
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
murder (these Aavikisms do not appear in Aavik 1921); and • laip ‘corpse’ versus German
German language
German is a West Germanic language, related to and classified alongside English and Dutch. With an estimated 90 – 98 million native speakers, German is one of the world's major languages and is the most widely-spoken first language in the European Union....
Leib ‘body’ and German
German language
German is a West Germanic language, related to and classified alongside English and Dutch. With an estimated 90 – 98 million native speakers, German is one of the world's major languages and is the most widely-spoken first language in the European Union....
Leiche ‘body, corpse’. These words might be better regarded as a peculiar manifestation of morpho-phonemic adaptation of a foreign lexical item. The often irregular and arbitrary sound changes could then be explained not as subconscious foreign influence but rather as conscious manipulation by the coiner. Aavik seems to have paid little attention to the origin of his neologisms. On occasion, he replaced existing native words or expressions with neologisms of foreign descent. Therefore, Aavik cannot be considered a purist
Linguistic purism
Linguistic purism or linguistic protectionism is the practice of defining one variety of a language as being purer than other varieties. The ideal of purity is often opposed in reference to a perceived decline from an "ideal past" or an unwanted similarity with other languages, but sometimes simply...
in the traditional sense, i.e. he was not ‘anti-foreignisms/loanwords’ as such.
Table of word production
| Proposed origin | No. of word roots | Period | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nostratic Nostratic languages Nostratic is a proposed language family that includes many of the indigenous language families of Eurasia, including the Indo-European, Uralic and Altaic as well as Kartvelian languages... (hypothetical, highly controversial) |
130? | ... – 10 000 BC | m(in)a 'I', s(in)a 'thou', vesi 'water', tabama 'to catch, seize, capture, hit', arbuma 'to magic, charm', puur 'auger', poeg 'son', päkk 'ball of the foot', keel 'tongue', pelgama 'to be afraid, fear', süva 'deep-seated, profound', vedama 'to pull, draw, drag, carry, drive', üks 'one', nimi 'name', too that', kes 'who' |
| Uralic Uralic languages The Uralic languages constitute a language family of some three dozen languages spoken by approximately 25 million people. The healthiest Uralic languages in terms of the number of native speakers are Hungarian, Finnish, Estonian, Mari and Udmurt... |
120 | 5000–4000 BC | ala 'under, sub', üla 'upper, top', esi 'front', taga 'behind'; see 'this, it', mis 'what', ei 'no'; minema 'to go', tulema 'to come', tundma 'to feel', ujuma 'to swim', pelgama 'to be afraid, fear', kaduma 'to disappear', mõskma 'to wash'; puu 'tree', kuusk 'spruce, fir(-tree)', kõiv 'birch', murakas 'cloudberry', suvi 'summer', päev 'day', kaja 'echo', kuu 'moon, Luna', lumi 'snow', soo 'marsh, bog, swamp', juga 'jet; falls, waterfall', kala 'fish', küü 'snake; blindworm', sisalik 'lizard'; keel 'tongue; language', kõrv 'ear', luu 'bone', maks 'liver', põlv 'knee', põsk 'cheek', silm 'eye', muna 'egg', neelama 'to swallow', pala 'piece', sulg 'feather', tuli 'fire', süsi 'ember(s), coal', suusk 'ski', nool 'arrow', sõudma 'to row', punuma 'to knit', vask 'copper', vöö 'belt, girdle'; elama 'to live; to dwell', koolma 'to die, pass away, decease', vägi 'power, vigour, strength, might, force', sala 'secretly', naine 'woman'; kaks 'two', viis 'five' |
| Finno-Ugric Finno-Ugric languages Finno-Ugric , Finno-Ugrian or Fenno-Ugric is a traditional group of languages in the Uralic language family that comprises the Finno-Permic and Ugric language families.... |
270 | 4000–3000 BC | aju 'brain', üdi 'marrow', hing 'soul', pea 'head', pii 'tooth', sapp 'gall, bile', vats 'belly, stomach'; aru 'sense, reason', jää 'ice', koit 'dawn, daybreak, Aurora', voor 'drumlin', paju 'willow', pihl 'rowan', kask 'birch', mari 'berry', pohl 'cowberry', kamar 'rind', rebane 'fox', nugis 'marten', siil 'hedgehog', utt 'ewe', hiir 'mouse', püü 'grouse', mõtus 'capercaillie', vares 'crow', pääsuke 'swallow', säga 'catfish', säinas 'ide', särg 'roach', täi 'louse', kusilane 'ant', koi 'moth, bug'; koda 'house, hall', küla 'village'; põlema 'burn, blaze', küdema 'burn, heat', pada 'pot', leem 'soup, broth, brew', või 'butter', väits 'knife', vestma 'carve', sau 'clay; stock for walking'; sõba 'robe'; kolm 'three', neli 'four', kuus 'six'; nõid 'witch', ise 'self', ilm 'weather, air'; talv 'winter', sügis 'autumn', iga 'age'; isa 'father', poeg 'son', küdi 'brother-in-law', kond '-hood'; valge 'white', hahk 'gray; eider', uus 'new', sepp 'blacksmith' |
| Finno-Permic Finno-Permic languages The Finno-Permic languages are a traditional but disputed ,group of the Uralic languages that comprises the Baltic-Finnic languages, Sami languages, Mordvinic languages, Mari language, Permic languages, and likely a number of extinct languages... |
50–140 | 2500–1500 BC | kõht 'stomach', kõri 'throat', säär 'leg, shank', koobas 'cave', põrm 'dust, earth', sõnnik 'dung', peda(jas) 'pine tree', kuslapuu 'honeysuckle', oks 'branch', pähkel 'nut', kiud 'fiber', peni 'dog', orav 'squirrel', kotkas 'eagle'; rehi 'threshing barn', kuduma 'to weave, to knit', amb 'crossbow', mõla 'oar, paddle', õng 'angle', äi 'father-in-law', äike 'thunder', parem 'right, better', vana 'old'; lõuna 'south, midday', meel 'mind' |
| Finno-Volgaic Finno-Volgaic languages Finno-Volgaic or Fenno-Volgaic is a defunct hypothesis of a subgrouping of the Uralic languages that tried to group the Finnic languages, Sami languages, Mordvinic languages and the Mari language... |
100–150 | 1500–1000 BC | selg 'back', koon 'snout', käpp 'paw', vaim 'spirit'; kevad 'spring', täht 'star', järv 'lake', haab 'aspen', saar 'ash tree', tamm 'oak', vaher 'maple', sarapuu 'hazel', õlg 'straw', lehm 'cow', siga 'pig', pett 'buttermilk', jahvatama to grind', kurg 'crane, stork', kurvits 'sandpiper', parm 'horse fly', sääsk 'midge'; keema 'to boil', hiilgama 'to glow, to gleam', käis 'sleeve', piir 'border'; vene 'boat'; lell 'uncle, father's brother'; jumal 'god'; aher 'barren', jahe 'cool', kõva 'hard', süva 'deep'; kargama 'to jump', pesema 'to wash', püsima 'to stay, to remain', lüpsma 'to milk' |
| Finno-Lappic Finno-Lappic languages The Finno-Lappic languages are a hypothetical subgroup of the Uralic family, and are made up of 22 languages classified into either the Sami languages , which are spoken by the Sami people who inhabit the Sápmi region of northern Fennoscandia, or Finnic languages, which include the major languages... |
130–150 | 1000–500 BC | vihm 'rain', sammal 'moss', org 'valley', vili 'grain, fruit', põõsas 'bush', põud 'draught', õnn 'happiness, fortune', veli 'brother', ime 'miracle', luule 'poetry', taga 'back, behind', tõsi 'truth',nälg 'hunger', küll 'surely' |
| Finnic Finnic languages The term Finnic languages often means the Baltic-Finnic languages, an undisputed branch of the Uralic languages. However, it is also commonly used to mean the Finno-Permic languages, a hypothetical intermediate branch that includes Baltic Finnic, or the more disputed Finno-Volgaic languages.... |
600–800 | 500 BC – 800 AD | põder 'elk', oja 'stream', udu 'fog', hobu 'horse', mänd 'pine tree'; kõne 'talk, speech', sõna 'word'; aeg 'time', eile 'yesterday'; laps 'child', rahvas 'people', linn 'town'; nuga 'knife', king 'shoe'; julge 'bold' |
| Estonian Estonian language Estonian is the official language of Estonia, spoken by about 1.1 million people in Estonia and tens of thousands in various émigré communities... and unknown |
appr. 1000 | räni 'silicium', roie 'rib', salk 'bunch', videvik 'twilight', jäärak 'gorge, valley', ila 'saliva', aas 'meadow', lubi 'lime', lõhn 'smell', kaan 'leech', kesv 'barley', ürp 'cloak', hiili- 'to sneak', mahe 'sweet, gentle', mõru 'bitter', raip 'carrion', roni- 'to climb' + numerous onomatopoetic-descriptive words | |
| Artificial | 50–60 | veenma 'to persuade, convince', roim 'crime' (probably derived from the English 'crime'), laip 'dead body, corpse' (probably derived from the German 'Leib'), kolp 'scull', relv 'weapon, arm', ese 'thing', süüme 'conscience; scruple', mõrv 'murder' (probably derived from the German 'Mord'), ulm 'dream', siiras 'sincere, candid', range 'rigorous, stern, severe, austere, strict, inexorable, relentless' (? German 'streng', Swedish 'sträng'), sulnis 'sweet, meek, mild', nõme 'silly', taunima 'to disapprove, deprecate, deplore', naasma 'to return', reetma 'to betray' (probably from the German '(ver)raten'), embama 'to embrace'; eirama 'to ignore', eramu 'private house', etlema 'to perform', kõlar 'loudspeaker', külmik 'refrigerator', meede 'measure', meene 'souvenir', siirdama 'to transplant', teave 'information', teismeline 'teenager', teler 'TV set', üllitis 'publication', ärandama, levima, süva(muusika), taies 'piece of art', rula 'skateboard' | |
| Proto-Indo-European Proto-Indo-European language The Proto-Indo-European language is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European languages, spoken by the Proto-Indo-Europeans... loans Loanword A loanword is a word borrowed from a donor language and incorporated into a recipient language. By contrast, a calque or loan translation is a related concept where the meaning or idiom is borrowed rather than the lexical item itself. The word loanword is itself a calque of the German Lehnwort,... (hypothetical) |
appr. 50 | 5000–3000 BC | higi 'sweat', huul 'lip', koib 'leg', kõrv 'ear', kube 'groin', külg 'side', liha 'meat', lõug 'chin', nahk 'skin, leather', rind 'breast', selg 'back'; mägi 'hill, mountain', mets 'forest', neem 'cape', nõmm 'moor', oja 'stream', org 'valley', saar 'island', soo 'bog'; ahven 'perch', haug 'pike', koger 'crucian carp', koha 'pike-perch', rääbis 'vendace', siig 'whitefish', vimb 'vimba bream', jänes 'hare', konn 'frog'; helmes 'bead' |
| Indo-European Indo-European languages The Indo-European languages are a family of several hundred related languages and dialects, including most major current languages of Europe, the Iranian plateau, and South Asia and also historically predominant in Anatolia... and Indo-Iranian Indo-Iranian languages The Indo-Iranian language group constitutes the easternmost extant branch of the Indo-European family of languages. It consists of three language groups: the Indo-Aryan, Iranian and Nuristani... loans |
20–45 | 3000–1000 BC | mesi 'honey', sool 'salt', osa 'part', sada 'hundred', põrsas 'piglet', varss 'calf', sarv 'horn', puhas 'clean', vasar 'hammer' |
| Proto-Baltic Balto-Slavic languages The Balto-Slavic language group traditionally comprises Baltic and Slavic languages, belonging to the Indo-European family of languages. Baltic and Slavic languages share several linguistic traits not found in any other Indo-European branch, which points to the period of common development... and Baltic Balto-Slavic languages The Balto-Slavic language group traditionally comprises Baltic and Slavic languages, belonging to the Indo-European family of languages. Baltic and Slavic languages share several linguistic traits not found in any other Indo-European branch, which points to the period of common development... loans |
100–150 | 1500–500 BC | hammas 'tooth', hani 'goose', hein 'hay', hernes 'pea', hõim 'tribe', oinas 'weather', puder 'porridge', põrgu 'hell', ratas 'wheel', seeme 'seed', sein 'wall', mets 'wood', luht 'waterside meadow', sõber 'friend', tuhat 'thousand', vagu 'furrow', regi 'sledge', vill 'wool', veel 'more, still', kael 'neck', kirves 'axe', laisk 'lazy' |
| Proto-Germanic and Germanic Germanic languages The Germanic languages constitute a sub-branch of the Indo-European language family. The common ancestor of all of the languages in this branch is called Proto-Germanic , which was spoken in approximately the mid-1st millennium BC in Iron Age northern Europe... loans |
380 | 2000 BC – 13th century | agan, ader 'plough', humal, kana 'hen', kaer 'oats', rukis 'rye', lammas 'sheep', leib 'bread', põld 'field'; aer 'oar', mõrd 'fish trap', laev 'ship', noot 'seine, sweep net', puri 'sail'; kuld 'gold', raud 'iron', tina 'tin'; sukk 'stocking', katel 'kettle', küünal 'candle', taigen 'dough'; kuningas 'king', laen 'loan', luna 'ransom, bail', raha 'money', rikas 'rich', vald 'parish, community'; kalju 'rock', kallas 'shore', rand 'coast'; armas 'dear', taud 'disease', kaunis 'beautiful', ja 'and' |
| Old Slavic Old Slavic Old Slavic may refer to:*the Old Church Slavonic language*the Proto-Slavic language language... loans |
50–75 | 10th–13th century | aken 'window', sahk 'plough', sirp 'sickle', turg 'market', teng(elpung) 'money', pagan 'heathen', papp 'priest', raamat 'book', rist 'cross', kasukas 'fur coat' |
| Proto Proto-language A proto-language in the tree model of historical linguistics is the common ancestor of the languages that form a language family. Occasionally, the German term Ursprache is used instead.Often the proto-language is not known directly... -Latvian Latvian language Latvian is the official state language of Latvia. It is also sometimes referred to as Lettish. There are about 1.4 million native Latvian speakers in Latvia and about 150,000 abroad. The Latvian language has a relatively large number of non-native speakers, atypical for a small language... loans |
40 | 6th–7th century | kanep 'hemp', lääts 'lentil', magun 'poppy', udras 'otter', kõuts 'tomcat', palakas 'sheet', lupard 'rag', harima 'cultivate, educate, clean', kukkel 'bun', vanik 'garland', laabuma 'to thrive', kauss 'bowl', mulk 'inhabitant of Viljandi county', pastel 'leather slipper' |
| Low Saxon Low German Low German or Low Saxon is an Ingvaeonic West Germanic language spoken mainly in northern Germany and the eastern part of the Netherlands... loans |
750 | 12th–16th century | kool 'school', neer 'kidney', ribi 'rib'; kruus 'gravel', torm 'storm';' kõrvits 'pumpkin', peet 'beet', salat 'salad', petersell 'parsley', münt 'coin', köömen 'caraway, cumin', loorber 'laurel', palm 'palm (tree)', tamm 'dam', roos 'rose', ploom 'plum'; hunt 'wolf; hound', köök 'kitchen', kruubid 'groat', kringel 'kringle, type of pastry', pannkook 'pancake', pekk 'lard', prantssai 'type of pastry', sült 'brawn', vorst 'sausage', õli 'oil', tärklis 'starch', pruukost 'breakfast', kruus 'mug', pann 'pan', pütt 'barrel', korv 'basket', lähker 'bota', toober 'tub', tiik 'pond', lamp 'lamp', lühter 'chandelier'; käärid 'scissors', teljed 'looms', vokk 'spinning wheel', lõuend 'canvas', samet 'velvet', siid 'silk', vilt 'felt', kuub 'coat', kört 'skirt', loor 'veil', müts 'cap', muda 'mud', mantel 'coat', püksid 'pants, trousers', vammus 'coat', nööp 'button'; hoov 'courtyard', häärber 'mansion', kelder 'cellar', kemmerg 'toilet', korsten 'chimney', ruum 'room', saal 'hall', tall 'stables', haamer 'hammer', hing 'hinge', höövel 'planer', kellu 'trowel', kapp 'cupboard', pink 'bench', tool 'stool', trepp 'stairs', vall 'wall, ridge', võlv 'vault'; jaht 'hunt', jääger 'hunter, hunt manager, game warden', kants 'stronghold', kütt 'hunter', laager 'camp', lahing 'battle', piir 'border', püss 'gun, rifle', tääk 'bayonet', vaht 'watch'; altar 'altar', ingel 'angel', jünger 'disciple', psalm 'psalm', prohvet 'prophet', salm 'verse', preester 'priest', troost 'consolation', pihtima 'to confess', vöörmünder 'church warden, beadle', piiskop 'bishop', sant 'beggar, cripple'; preili 'miss, maiden', memm 'old woman', mats 'boor, hick', härra 'gentleman', proua 'lady', kelm 'dodger, rascal, cheat', narr 'joker, fool', naaber 'neighbour', kuller 'courrier', laat 'fair, market', selts 'society, club', krahv 'count', saks 'German, nobleman', arst 'doctor', plaaster 'tape, plaster'; hangeldama 'smuggle', küürima 'scour', tingima 'to bargain', kortel 'quartern', matt 'a measure', toll 'inch', vaagima 'to weigh', viht 'weight', üür 'rent', paar 'pair', piik 'spike, lance', tosin 'dozen', veerand 'quarter'; näärid 'new year', reede 'Friday', tund 'hour', vastlad 'shrovetide'; ankur 'anchor', kiil 'keel', tüür 'steer', praam 'pram, ferry', madrus 'sailor', pootsman 'boatswain', kotermann 'ship gremlin', loots 'pilot', kipper 'skipper'; kaart 'map, card', kunst 'art', maaler 'painter', maalima 'to paint', paber 'paper', trükkima 'to print', uurima 'to search, study, survey', trumm 'drum', tantsima 'to dance', piip 'pipe', vilepill 'whistle', pasun 'horn, trumpet'; just 'just, namely', topelt 'double', väärt 'valuable' |
| Swedish Swedish language Swedish is a North Germanic language, spoken by approximately 10 million people, predominantly in Sweden and parts of Finland, especially along its coast and on the Åland islands. It is largely mutually intelligible with Norwegian and Danish... loans |
140 | 13th–17th century | kratt 'stealing demon', kroonu 'army, government', kuunar 'schooner', pagar 'baker', näkk 'mermaid, nix', plasku 'flask', plika 'girl', tasku 'pocket', räim 'herring', tünder 'barrel', moor 'old woman', puldan, tont 'ghost, demon' |
| Russian Russian language Russian is a Slavic language used primarily in Russia, Belarus, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. It is an unofficial but widely spoken language in Ukraine, Moldova, Latvia, Turkmenistan and Estonia and, to a lesser extent, the other countries that were once constituent republics... loans |
350 | 14th–20th century | kapsas, tatar, puravik, riisikas, sihvka, kiisu, suslik, kulu, prussakas, tarakan, naarits, soobel, uss; noos, moiva, vobla, mutt; kamorka, putka, sara, lobudik, trahter, koiku, nari, pruss, tökat; hõlst, kamass, kirsa, kombinesoon, kott, puhvaika, marli, pintsak, retuusid, trussikud; kiisel, pontšik, rosolje, rupskid, borš, uhhaa, morss, samagon; batoon, kissell, plombiir, povidlo, šašlõkk, uhhaa; plotski, mahorka, pabeross; mannerg, kopsik; nuut, kantsik, piits, tupik, relss, jaam; kabi, knopka; kasakas, kasarmu, karauul, katelok, kiiver, munder, nekrut, pagun, polk, ranits, sinel, tentsik, utsitama, timukas, rajoon, türm, pops, artell; palakas, haltuura, parseldama, parisnik, siva, tolk, tots, pujään, kitt, tuur, ladna, prosta, sutike; kaanima, kostitama, kruttima, kupeldama |
| (High High German languages The High German languages or the High German dialects are any of the varieties of standard German, Luxembourgish and Yiddish, as well as the local German dialects spoken in central and southern Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein, Switzerland, Luxembourg and in neighboring portions of Belgium and the... ) German German language German is a West Germanic language, related to and classified alongside English and Dutch. With an estimated 90 – 98 million native speakers, German is one of the world's major languages and is the most widely-spoken first language in the European Union.... loans |
500 | 16th–20th century | larhv, lokk, seitel; kastan, pappel, kirss, jasmiin, jorjen, kartul, tulp, vihk; ahv, auster, kalkun, siisike, miisu, mops, taks, kits, vau, viidikas, nepp, pistrik; klimp, klops, kotlet, kompvek, supp, tort, viiner, soust, vahvel, vürts, vein; jope, kittel, kampsun, kleit, vest, lips, värvel, sall, pluus; kamin, pliit, käär(kamber), sahver, latter, kabel, palat; pult, sohva, leen, kummut, kardin, sahtel; uur, klade, klamber, latern, sihverplaat, silt; opman, oober, tisler, tudeng, velsker, virtin, antvärk, aadlik, kärner, kilter, kutsar, lärm, oksjon, krempel, klatš; krehvtine, hull, liiderlik, napp, noobel, ontlik, plass, tumm, trammis; kleepima, klantsima, mehkeldama, sehkendama, rehkendama, trimpama, pummeldama, praalima, turnima; ahoi, proosit, hurraa, hopp, hallo |
| Finnish Finnish language Finnish is the language spoken by the majority of the population in Finland Primarily for use by restaurant menus and by ethnic Finns outside Finland. It is one of the two official languages of Finland and an official minority language in Sweden. In Sweden, both standard Finnish and Meänkieli, a... loans |
90 | 19th–20th century | aare, sangar, harras, jenka, julm, jäik, sünge, tehas, uljas, vaist, vihjama, säilima, kuvama, haihtuma, anastama |
| Hebrew Hebrew language Hebrew is a Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Culturally, is it considered by Jews and other religious groups as the language of the Jewish people, though other Jewish languages had originated among diaspora Jews, and the Hebrew language is also used by non-Jewish groups, such... loans |
< 5 | jaana(lind) 'ostrich', tohuvabohu Tohu va bohu Tohu wa bohu is a Biblical Hebrew phrase found in the Book of Genesis 1:2. It is usually translated "formless and empty," or some variation of the same, and describes the condition of the earth before God said, "Let there be light." Precise translation of the phrase is difficult, as only the first... 'chaos' |
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| Romani Romani language Romani or Romany, Gypsy or Gipsy is any of several languages of the Romani people. They are Indic, sometimes classified in the "Central" or "Northwestern" zone, and sometimes treated as a branch of their own.... loans |
<5 | manguma 'to beg' |