End of Han Dynasty
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The End of the Han Dynasty refers to the period from 189 to 220, which roughly coincides with the reign of the Han Dynasty
's last ruler, Emperor Xian
. During this period, the Han empire's institutions were destroyed by the warlord Dong Zhuo
, and fractured into regional regimes ruled by various warlords, some of whom were nobles and officials of the Han imperial court. Eventually, one of those warlords, Cao Cao
, was able to gradually reunify the empire, ostensibly under Emperor Xian's rule, but the empire was actually controlled by Cao Cao himself. Cao Cao's efforts to completely reunite the Han empire were rebuffed at the Battle of Red Cliffs
in 208 / 209, when his armies were defeated by the allied forces of Sun Quan
and Liu Bei
. The Han Dynasty formally ended in 220 when Cao Cao's son and heir, Cao Pi
, pressured Emperor Xian into abdicating in his favour. Cao Pi became the emperor of a new state, Cao Wei
. A year later, in response to Cao Pi's usurpation of the Han throne, Liu Bei declared himself emperor of Shu Han
; and in 229, Sun Quan followed suit, declaring himself emperor of Eastern Wu
. The period from Emperor Xian's abdication in 220 to the partial reunification of China under the Jin Dynasty in 265 was known as the Three Kingdoms
era in Chinese history.
(r. 168–189), many officials in the imperial court foresaw chaos in the political scene as soon as Emperor Ling died. One of those officials, Liu Yan, suggested to Emperor Ling in 188 that the root of the agrarian revolts during that time, including the most serious Yellow Turban Rebellion
of 184, was that Inspectors (刺史) lacked substantial administrative powers. Emperor Ling, convinced by Liu Yan, changed the Inspectors' titles to "Governor" (牧) and granted them the authority to levy taxes and command armed forces within the borders. Liu Yan was commissioned as the Governor of Yi Province (益州; covering the Sichuan Basin
), while several other important officials also became Governors, including Liu Yu, who was appointed Governor of You Province (幽州; covering present-day northern Hebei
, Beijing
, Tianjin
and Liaoning
). The increased influence of these provincial governors formed the basis on which later warlords would control large regions of the Han empire.
(born to Empress He
), who became known as Emperor Shao. Empress He, now empress dowager
, became regent
to the young emperor, while her older brother, General-in-Chief He Jin
, became the most powerful official in the imperial court. He Jin and Yuan Shao
plotted to exterminate all the Ten Attendants
, a group of ten influential eunuch
officials in the court, but Empress Dowager He disapproved of their plan. In a fateful move, He Jin summoned Dong Zhuo
, a warlord controlling the battle-tested Liang Province (涼州; covering present-day Gansu
), to march on the capital Luoyang
to threaten Empress Dowager He into eliminating the Ten Attendants. After the eunuchs discovered He Jin's plot, they lured him into the palace and murdered him. In response, Yuan Shao led the imperial guards on an indiscriminate massacre of the palace eunuchs. The surviving eunuchs kidnapped Emperor Shao and his younger brother, the eight-year-old Prince of Chenliu (raised by his grandmother Empress Dowager Dong
), and fled north towards the Yellow River
, but were finally forced to commit suicide by throwing themselves into the river.
Dong Zhuo arrived on the scene and found Emperor Shao and the Prince of Chenliu. The young emperor appeared nervous and fearful, while the prince remained calm and composed, and gave orders to Dong Zhuo to escort them back to the palace. Dong Zhuo used the opportunity to seize control of state power and bring his army into the capital. Not long later, Dong Zhuo deposed Emperor Shao and replaced him with the Prince of Chenliu, who became known as Emperor Xian
. Dong Zhuo dominated the imperial court and named himself "Chancellor of State" (相國), a title not held by anyone since the Western Han Dynasty statesman Xiao He
; Dong Zhuo also granted himself the privilege of attending court without needing to disarm himself or remove his shoes.
, Administrator of Bohai (渤海; covering present-day Cangzhou
, Hebei
), was nominated to be the leader of the coalition. The coalition armies was stationed at Henei (河內; in present-day Jiaozuo
, Henan
) and appeared to be ready to move on the capital Luoyang
. However, the coalition was actually rather disorganized, and Yuan Shao did not have effective command over the entire alliance. Besides, the coalition members were also hesitant to directly confront Dong Zhuo and his strong Liang Province military. Still, Dong Zhuo was anxious and chose to move the capital to Chang'an
in the west to avoid the coalition. About a month later, Dong Zhuo forced Emperor Xian and the imperial court to move to Chang'an, along with Luoyang's residents, and in the process, he ordered the former capital to be destroyed by fire. During the move, Dong Zhuo remained near Luoyang, ready to resist any coalition attacks on him. In 191, the coalition tried to further de-legitimize Dong Zhuo's position by offering to enthrone Liu Yu, who was eligible to be Emperor since he was a member of the royal clan. Liu Yu remained faithful to Emperor Xian and firmly declined to take the throne. As the coalition members continued to bicker over battle plans, a minor general under Yuan Shu
, Sun Jian
, took a calculated risk and attacked Dong Zhuo directly near Luoyang. After scoring a number of victories over Dong Zhuo's forces, Sun Jian eventually forced Dong to retreat to Chang'an, and Luoyang came under the coalition's control.
For the following months until the end of 191, the coalition ceased to take further action against Dong Zhuo, and eventually disbanded and the members returned to their respective bases. Soon, a number of officials started having thoughts of controlling and ruling over their own territories like kings. The most prominent warlords who emerged at that time included:
However, in addition to these greater warlords, in time the entire Han empire virtually fractured into small blocs, each controlled by a local warlord.
and a few other officials, including Huang Wan (黃琬), Shisun Rui (士孫瑞), and Yang Zan (楊瓚), plotted to eliminate Dong Zhuo. They eventually persuaded Dong Zhuo's foster son, Lü Bu
, to join them. Lü Bu bore a grudge against Dong Zhuo because the latter almost killed him once during a fit of anger, and also because he was afraid that his secret affair with one of Dong Zhuo's maids might be exposed. In May 192, the conspirators, led by Lü Bu and Wang Yun, assassinated Dong Zhuo and slaughtered his clan.
, took control of Dong's forces in Liang Province and resisted Wang Yun, but later died in a friendly fire incident. Niu Fu's subordinates, Li Jue, Guo Si
and Fan Chou
, wanted to submit to the imperial court, but as they had previously resisted Wang Yun, Wang now rejected their request for amnesty. Li Jue, Guo Si and Fan Chou led their armies to attack Chang'an and took control of the government. Wang Yun was captured and executed along with his family, while Lü Bu was defeated and driven away.
After taking control over the imperial court in Chang'an, Li Jue, Guo Si and Fan Chou did as they pleased without showing any regard for the welfare of the state. Concurrently, provincial warlords all over China battled each other to expand their territories or further their personal interests. Some of those warlords were friendly with Li Jue's forces, while others remained hostile to them, even though all of them nominally acknowledged Emperor Xian as the sovereign ruler of China.
In 193, armed conflict broke out between the northern warlords Liu Yu and Gongsun Zan
. Liu Yu strongly opposed warfare while Gongsun Zan continuously waged war against Yuan Shao
. Liu Yu and Gongsun Zan made accusations against each other in their respective memorials to Emperor Xian. Eventually, Liu Yu was unable to tolerate Gongsun Zan and attacked the latter, but was defeated and killed.
In 195, turmoil ensued in Chang'an when Li Jue and Guo Si killed Fan Chou together, and later turned against each other. Li Jue held Emperor Xian hostage while Guo Si kidnapped the imperial officials, and both sides engaged in battle. Later that year, Li Jue and Guo Si made peace and agreed to allow Emperor Xian to return to the old capital, Luoyang
, but later regretted their decision and pursued him. While Li Jue and Guo Si were never able to capture Emperor Xian again, the imperial court was rendered poor and unable to fend for itself. As Luoyang had been previously devastated by fire during Dong Zhuo's time, the city lacked the basic essentials of life and many officials starved to death or resorted to cannibalism
. Around this time, Ju Shou
suggested to Yuan Shao to welcome Emperor Xian to his province so that he could take effective control of the government. However, Guo Tu
and Chunyu Qiong
opposed Ju Shou's view, claiming that if Yuan Shao brought Emperor Xian to his territory, he would need to yield to the emperor on key decisions and follow proper court protocol. Yuan Shao remained hesitant and did not come to a conclusion on whether to receive the emperor or not.
took advantage of the situation to bring the emperor to his territory. At that time, Cao Cao was still a relatively minor warlord, with only Yan Province (兗州; covering present-day western Shandong
and eastern Henan
) under his control. In 196, Cao Cao led his army towards Luoyang. He encountered Dong Cheng
and Yang Feng (who were shielding Emperor Xian from Li Jue and Guo Si), convinced them of his loyalty, and was allowed to meet the emperor. In name, Cao Cao was sharing power with the other officials and nobles, but actually he was in control, but yet he ensured that the officials and nobles were treated with due respect, hence he faced minimal opposition in the imperial court. Later, Cao Cao escorted the emperor back to his base in Xu (許; present-day Xuchang
, Henan), establishing the new capital there.
From then on, although Cao Cao was a subject of Emperor Xian in name, he actually wielded state power and controlled the imperial court. Despite so, Cao Cao never showed disrespect to Emperor Xian, and instead, honoured the emperor according to formal imperial protocol. Cao Cao also issued imperial edicts in Emperor Xian's name to other warlords, ordering them to submit to imperial authority when in fact they were actually submitting to him. When Cao Cao sent Yuan Shao an edict in the emperor's name, only then did Yuan realized that he had lost an opportunity to make use of the emperor to control other warlords.
policy to promote agricultural production, in which soldiers were sent to grow crops, and the harvest would be shared between the military and civilian population. The policy yielded commendable results as the area around Xu developed into highly productive farmland and the problem of shortage of food was resolved.
At this time, the most prominent warlords in China were:
There were still many other minor warlords, and Cao Cao particularly sought to get them to submit to him. In 197, Zhang Xiu
surrendered Wancheng to Cao Cao. However, Cao Cao later had an affair with Zhang Xiu's widowed aunt, angering Zhang, who rebelled and launched a surprise attack on Cao Cao at Wancheng. In this battle
, Cao Cao's oldest son Cao Ang
, nephew Cao Anmin
, and bodyguard Dian Wei
were killed, and Cao Cao himself narrowly escaped from death. On the advice of Jia Xu
, Zhang Xiu eventually surrendered to Cao Cao in 200. In addition, in 197, Cao Cao was able to persuade Ma Teng
and Han Sui
, who controlled Yong and Liang provinces (covering most of present-day Shaanxi
and Gansu
), to submit to him.
That year, Yuan Shu declared himself "Son of Heaven
" in Shouchun (壽春; present-day Shou County
, Anhui), an act perceived as treason against the Han Dynasty government, prompting other warlords to use that as an excuse to attack him (see Campaign against Yuan Shu
). Sun Ce
, son of Sun Jian
, who had conquered several territories in Jiangdong
between 194 and 199, ended his alliance with Yuan Shu and became an independent warlord. Lü Bu, who was also previously Yuan Shu's ally, broke ties with Yuan and dealt him a major defeat near Shouchun. Cao Cao also attacked Yuan Shu and defeated him. Yuan Shu attempted to flee north to join Yuan Shao but his way was blocked and he eventually died of illness on the way back to Shouchun in 199.
In 198, Yuan Shao tried to persuade Cao Cao to move the capital to Juancheng (鄄城; in present-day Heze
, Shandong), which was nearer to his own territory, in an attempt to wrestle Emperor Xian away from Cao, but Cao refused. Later that year, Cao Cao joined forces with Liu Bei to attack Lü Bu, defeating him at the Battle of Xiapi
. Lü Bu was captured and executed on Cao Cao's order, and Xu Province came under Cao's control.
In 199, Gongsun Zan was defeated by Yuan Shao at the Battle of Yijing
and he committed suicide by setting himself on fire. Gongsun Zan's territories, which extended to the northern boundaries of the Han Dynasty's empire, were completely annexed by Yuan Shao. Yuan Shao then turned his attention south towards Cao Cao, who was an emerging power in central China. Yuan formed an alliance with Liu Biao and was intent on attacking Cao Cao.
and Tian Feng
, who reasoned that their troops were exhausted after the battles against Gongsun Zan and needed rest, Yuan Shao prepared for a campaign against Cao Cao, confident that his much larger army could easily crush Cao Cao's. While Cao Cao readied himself for battle, he discovered that Dong Cheng
, Liu Bei and a few other officials were conspiring against him. In early 200, Liu Bei used an opportunity to break away from Cao Cao and seize control of Xu Province, after killing Cao Cao's appointed governor of the province, Che Zhou (車冑). On the other hand, Dong Cheng and the others were making plans to assassinate Cao Cao. However, the plot was exposed and all the conspirators in the capital were massacred along with their families. Cao Cao then took a risk by attacking Liu Bei in Xu Province, leaving his flank open to attacks from Yuan Shao. However, Cao Cao made a right choice because Yuan Shao did not heed Tian Feng's urging to seize the chance to attack him. Liu Bei was defeated and he fled north to join Yuan Shao. Liu Bei's general Guan Yu
surrendered to Cao Cao and temporarily served under Cao.
Only after Liu Bei's defeat did Yuan Shao start implementing his plan to attack Cao Cao, but this time Tian Feng opposed his decision, saying that their opportunity had passed. Yuan Shao became annoyed with Tian Feng and had Tian imprisoned, after which he led his army south to attack Cao Cao. At the Battle of Boma
, Yuan Shao's general Yan Liang
was slain by Guan Yu while another of Yuan's generals, Wen Chou
, was killed in action against Cao Cao's forces. The morale of Yuan Shao's army was greatly affected by the loss of the two generals.
By late 200, the armies of Yuan Shao and Cao Cao finally clashed at Guandu (官渡; in present-day Zhengzhou
, Henan
), south of the Yellow River
. Yuan Shao had two advantages over Cao Cao - numerical superiority and greater amount of supplies, but Cao Cao's troops were better trained than his. After some minor skirmishes, both sides became locked in a stalemate, until Cao Cao personally led a small detachment on a surprise attack on Yuan Shao's supply depot at Wuchao, which was defended by Chunyu Qiong
. Instead of sending reinforcements to Wuchao, Yuan Shao sent Zhang He
and Gao Lan
to attack Cao Cao's camp, but was unsuccessful. The fall of Wuchao dealt a major blow to the morale of Yuan Shao's army, which was subsequently routed by Cao Cao's forces. Yuan Shao fled north of the Yellow River while most of his troops were either killed or surrendered to Cao Cao. From that point on, although Yuan Shao continued to remain as a major power player, he could no longer challenge Cao Cao's growing supremacy.
After Yuan Shao died of illness in 202, a struggle of succession developed between his oldest son Yuan Tan
and third son Yuan Shang
. Several years before Yuan Shao's death, based on the traditional order of succession, Yuan Tan should have been designated as the heir apparent
, but as Yuan Shao's wife Lady Liu favoured Yuan Shang, so Yuan Shao had Yuan Tan posthumously adopted by the latter's uncle, Yuan Cheng (袁成). Yuan Shao then divided his territories between his sons and nephew Gao Gan
, ostensibly so that he could determine their abilities. His base of Ji Province was given to Yuan Shang, Yuan Tan controlled Qing Province, while Yuan Xi
governed You Province, and Gao Gan ruled Bing Province. On his deathbed, Yuan Shao did not leave any explicit instruction as to who should succeed him. Of Yuan Shao's followers, Pang Ji and Shen Pei
supported Yuan Shang, while Xin Ping
and Guo Tu
favoured Yuan Tan. After Yuan Shao's death, most of his subordinates initially wanted Yuan Tan to be their new lord, since he was the oldest son. However, Shen Pei and Pang Ji forged a will, naming Yuan Shang as the successor. Yuan Tan was furious and mobilized his forces under the pretext of attacking Cao Cao, drawing Cao's attention, and Cao preemptively retaliated. Yuan Shang came to his oldest brother's aid, and they fought inconclusively against Cao Cao in the Battle of Liyang
.
In 203, Cao Cao scored a major victory over the Yuans, who retreated back to Ji Province's capital, Ye
(鄴). Cao Cao then planned to besiege Ye, but later withdrew his forces after heeding Guo Jia
's advice. Guo Jia reasoned that if Cao Cao pressured the Yuans, they might unite against a common enemy; however, if Cao Cao retreated, the disgruntled Yuan brothers would start fighting among themselves. Guo Jia's prediction came true later when Yuan Tan, still bearing a grudge against Yuan Shang for receiving a larger inheritance, attacked Yuan Shang, but his forces in Qing Province defected to Yuan Shang. Yuan Tan fled to Pingyuan (平原; in present-day Dezhou
, Shandong
) and was besieged by Yuan Shang there. Yuan Tan sought help from Cao Cao, and Cao advanced north to attack Ye, forcing Yuan Shang to lift the siege on Pingyuan. In early 204, Yuan Shang incorrectly believed that Cao Cao had withdrawn, so he attacked his brother again at Pingyuan. Cao Cao attacked Ye once more
and Yuan Shang headed back to defend his base, but was defeated by Cao Cao. Yuan Shang then fled north to Zhongshan (中山; in present-day Shijiazhuang
, Hebei), and Ye fell to Cao Cao. Gao Gan also surrendered Bing Province to Cao Cao.
During Cao Cao's siege on Ye, Yuan Tan did not help attack Ye but sought to take Yuan Shang's territories, defeating Yuan Shang in Zhongshan. Yuan Shang fled further north to join Yuan Xi in You Province. Cao Cao now accused Yuan Tan of breaching the trust in the alliance so he turned east to attack him, capturing Yuan Tan's last stronghold at Nanpi (南皮; in present-day Cangzhou
, Hebei) and killing Yuan. Meanwhile in You Province, Yuan Xi's subordinate Jiao Chu (焦觸) revolted and surrendered to Cao Cao, forcing Yuan Xi and Yuan Shang to flee further north to join the Wuhuan
tribes under chief Tadun. Around this time, Gao Gan also rebelled against Cao Cao, but was defeated by 206 and killed while attempting to flee south to join Liu Biao
.
In 207, Cao Cao's army headed north to attack the Wuhuan, defeating them at the Battle of White Wolf Mountain
. Tadun was killed in battle while Yuan Xi and Yuan Shang sought refuge under Gongsun Kang
, a warlord who controlled most of present-day Liaoning
. Gongsun Kang feared that the Yuans might turn against him and seize his territory, so he had them executed and sent their heads to Cao Cao. By this time, the Yuan clan had been completely eliminated and much of northern China had been reunified under Cao Cao's control.
, who had succeeded his older brother Sun Ce
after the latter was assassinated in 200; Liu Biao
; Liu Zhang
. During that time, Sun Quan was also developing his the territories in Jiangdong
, which he inherited from Sun Ce, and strengthening his military forces. In 208, Sun Quan defeated and killed Liu Biao's vassal Huang Zu
at the Battle of Xiakou
, seizing most of Huang's territory at Jiangxia
(江夏; present-day Yunmeng County
, Hubei
).
While Cao Cao was attacking the Yuan clan in northern China, Liu Bei
fled south to join Liu Biao and became a vassal under the latter. In 208, Cao Cao launched a southern campaign to conquer Liu Biao's Jing Province. Liu Biao was ill and dying, when a succession struggle broke out between his sons Liu Qi and Liu Cong. After Huang Zu's defeat, Liu Qi was appointed by Liu Biao as Administrator of Jiangxia, which was previously governed by Huang. Liu Cong, who was favoured by Liu Biao's second wife Lady Cai
(because he married her niece), remained in Jing Province's capital, Xiangyang
. Liu Cong became the new Governor of Jing Province after his father's death. Fearing that he might be caught in a war on two fronts (Cao Cao in the north and Liu Qi in the southeast), Liu Cong surrendered to Cao Cao, and most of Jing Province came under Cao Cao's control. Liu Bei was unwilling to submit to Cao Cao and fled south. Along the way, one of Cao Cao's light cavalry units caught up with Liu Bei's retreating forces (which included civilians) and defeated them at the Battle of Changban
. Liu Bei escaped with his life and fled to Dangyang (當陽; in present-day Yichang
, Hubei).
In Jiangdong, Sun Quan felt threatened by Cao Cao's approaching army and sent Lu Su
to discuss forming an alliance with Liu Bei and Liu Qi against Cao Cao. Cao Cao wrote Sun Quan a letter, intended to intimidate the latter into submitting. Cao Cao's army was estimated to be 220,000 men strong, although Cao himself claimed that he had 800,000 troops. Sun Quan had 30,000 men at most while Liu Bei and Liu Qi's combined forces totaled about 10,000. In view of Cao Cao's overwhelming forces, many of Sun Quan's followers, including Zhang Zhao
, strongly advocated surrender. However, Sun Quan refused as he agreed with Zhou Yu
and Lu Su's view that Cao Cao might not let him off even if he submitted. By late 208, with help from Zhou Yu and Lu Su (and Zhuge Liang
, who represented Liu Bei in the diplomatic exchange), an alliance was formed between Sun Quan and Liu Bei against Cao Cao.
pretended to defect to Cao Cao's side and was accepted by the latter. Huang Gai brought with him a small group of men and they sailed towards Cao Cao's base on boats. As the boats approached Cao Cao's fleet, Huang Gai ordered his men to set the boats on fire, and the burning boats crashed into Cao Cao's larger ships. The fire spread out of control and completely destroyed Cao Cao's entire naval fleet. Cao Cao's land forces at Wulin (烏林; in present-day Honghu
, Hubei
) were also attacked and driven back by Sun Quan and Liu Bei's armies. Cao Cao suffered a drastic defeat at the Battle of Red Cliffs
and was forced to retreat north back to Jiangling (江陵, located in present-day Jingjiang 荆江, not to be confused with present-day Jiangling County, Hubei).
, Sun Quan's forces under Zhou Yu
's command pressed on another attack on Cao Cao, leading to the Battle of Jiangling
. On the other hand, Liu Bei used the opportunity to attack the four commanderies of Wuling, Changsha, Lingling and Guiyang in southern Jing Province and bring them under his control. By early 209, Cao Cao had lost most of Jing Province to the allies.
As Liu Bei had become relatively more powerful after his conquests of the four commanderies, Sun Quan became apprehensive of him and decided to strengthen their alliance by arranging for a marriage between his younger sister, Lady Sun
, and Liu Bei. Zhou Yu was suspicious of Liu Bei's intentions and suggested to Sun Quan to capture Liu Bei, put him under house arrest, and then take control over Liu's forces. However, Sun Quan rejected Zhou Yu's idea as he believed that Liu Bei's forces would rebel against him even if the plan succeeded. Sun Quan did agree with Zhou Yu's suggestion to consider attacking the warlords Liu Zhang
and Zhang Lu, who controlled parts of western China, including present-day southern Shaanxi
and the Sichuan Basin
. The plan was not set into motion and eventually aborted when Zhou Yu died in 210. Even though Sun Quan did not expand his borders west, he managed to persuade several local leaders in present-day Guangdong
, Guangxi
and northern Vietnam
to submit to him, and these territories became part of his domain. Sun Quan then agreed to "lend" northern Jing Province to Liu Bei as well when the latter complained that the south lacked resources to sustain his military.
. Warlords Han Sui
and Ma Chao
, who controlled Liang and Yong provinces, suspected that Cao Cao had designs on them and launched attacks in retaliation. A coalition of forces from west of Hangu Pass
, led by Ma Chao and Han Sui, were defeated by Cao Cao at the Battle of Tong Pass
in 211, and their territories were annexed by Cao over the next few years.
Liu Zhang
of Yi Province became worried of possible attacks from Zhang Lu and Cao Cao, so he sent Fa Zheng
to invite Liu Bei into his domain to help him defend against Zhang Lu and Cao Cao. Fa Zheng was unimpressed with Liu Zhang's governorship and wanted Liu Bei to replace his lord, so he urged Liu Bei to use the opportunity to take control of Yi Province. Liu Bei heeded Fa Zheng's suggestion and led his army into Yi Province, where he received a warm welcome from Liu Zhang. Liu Zhang sent Liu Bei to station at Jiameng Pass in northern Yi Province to resist Zhang Lu.
In 212, Liu Bei and Liu Zhang turned hostile towards each other and waged war. Zhuge Liang
led a detachment of Liu Bei's forces left in Jing Province to join his lord in attacking Liu Zhang. Guan Yu
remained behind to defend Jing Province. In 215, Liu Bei had defeated much of Liu Zhang's forces and besieged him in his capital of Chengdu
. Liu Zhang surrendered and yielded Yi Province to Liu Bei. The province became Liu Bei's new base, and he used the mountainous surroundings as natural defenses against Cao Cao in the north.
In the same year Liu Bei took over Yi Province, diplomatic relations between him and Sun Quan deteriorated when he refused to return Jing Province, which he "borrowed" from Sun Quan five years ago. Sun Quan launched an initial attack on Guan Yu and much of eastern Jing Province quickly submitted. However, after negotiations between Guan Yu and Lu Su
, Liu Bei agreed to give up the three commanderies of Changsha, Jiangxia and Guiyang to Sun Quan, renewing their alliance and dividing Jing Province between them along the Xiang River
.
. Zhang Lu surrendered and his domain in Hanzhong
came under Cao Cao's control. Against the advice of his followers to move south and attack Liu Bei in Yi Province, Cao Cao withdrew his armies and left Xiahou Yuan
in command of a small force to defend Hanzhong. The following year, Cao Cao pressured Emperor Xian into granting him a title of nobility, "King of Wei". Over the next few years, Cao Cao's style of living became more like the emperor's, and he also received greater honours.
In 217, Liu Bei started a campaign
to seize Hanzhong from Cao Cao. After Xiahou Yuan was defeated and killed at the Battle of Mount Dingjun
in 219, Cao Cao became alarmed and quickly arrived with reinforcements to resist Liu Bei. Both sides became locked in a stalemate, except for a clash at the Battle of Han River
, before Cao Cao eventually decided to withdraw his forces, giving up Hanzhong to Liu Bei. Liu Bei subsequently declared himself "King of Hanzhong" after his victory.
also advanced north from Jing Province to attack Cao Cao's city of Fancheng (樊城; present-day Fancheng District, Xiangyang
, Hubei
), which was defended by Cao Ren
. While Cao Ren managed to hold on to his position firmly, Guan Yu besieged the city, and the situation was serious enough that Cao Cao even considered moving the capital away from Xu.
At the same time, Sun Quan
became increasingly resentful of Guan Yu because the latter had previously shown hostility towards him in three incidents: Guan Yu drove away the officials Sun Quan sent to the three commanderies that Liu Bei had promised to give up to Sun; Guan Yu forcefully seized food supplies from one of Sun Quan's bases for use in his Fancheng campaign; Guan Yu ridiculed Sun Quan when the latter proposed a marriage between his son and Guan's daughter. When Guan Yu was away attacking Fancheng, Sun Quan sent his general Lü Meng
to launch an assault on Jing Province from the east, swiftly conquering the province within weeks. The morale of Guan Yu's forces fell sharply and his soldiers gradually deserted him until he was left with only about 300 men. Guan Yu was isolated and besieged by Sun Quan's forces in Maicheng, and he attempted to break out but fell into an ambush and was captured. Guan Yu refused to surrender and was eventually executed on Sun Quan's order. This marked the end of the alliance between Sun Quan and Liu Bei. Sun Quan nominally submitted to Cao Cao and was granted the title of "Marquis of Wu". Sun Quan also urged Cao Cao to take the emperor's throne but Cao declined.
inherited the title of "King of Wei" without waiting for formal authorization from Emperor Xian. In the winter of 220, Emperor Xian sent the Imperial Seal
to Cao Pi and issued an edict announcing that he was abdicating in favour of Cao Pi. Cao Pi formally declined to accept the throne thrice but obliged eventually. The Han Dynasty officially ended at that point and Cao Pi established the state of Cao Wei
in its place, moving the capital from Xu back to Luoyang
. The dethroned Emperor Xian was granted a title of "Duke of Shanyang".
In 221, Liu Bei declared himself emperor in Chengdu
and established the state of Shu Han
. Sun Quan continued to remain as a nominal subject of Cao Pi until 222, when he declared himself king of a separate state, Wu (better known as Eastern Wu
in history). In 229, Sun Quan formally became emperor of Wu.
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
's last ruler, Emperor Xian
Emperor Xian of Han
Emperor Xian of Han , personal name Liu Xie, style name Bohe, was the last emperor of the Han Dynasty period of Chinese history...
. During this period, the Han empire's institutions were destroyed by the warlord Dong Zhuo
Dong Zhuo
Dong Zhuo was a politician and warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He seized control of the capital city Luoyang in 189 when it was in a state of turmoil following the death of Emperor Ling and a clash between the eunuch faction and some court officials led by...
, and fractured into regional regimes ruled by various warlords, some of whom were nobles and officials of the Han imperial court. Eventually, one of those warlords, Cao Cao
Cao Cao
Cao Cao was a warlord and the penultimate chancellor of the Eastern Han Dynasty who rose to great power during the dynasty's final years. As one of the central figures of the Three Kingdoms period, he laid the foundations for what was to become the state of Cao Wei and was posthumously titled...
, was able to gradually reunify the empire, ostensibly under Emperor Xian's rule, but the empire was actually controlled by Cao Cao himself. Cao Cao's efforts to completely reunite the Han empire were rebuffed at the Battle of Red Cliffs
Battle of Red Cliffs
The Battle of Red Cliffs, otherwise known as the Battle of Chibi, was a decisive battle at the end of the Han Dynasty, immediately prior to the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. It was fought in the winter of 208/9 AD between the allied forces of the southern warlords Liu Bei and Sun Quan...
in 208 / 209, when his armies were defeated by the allied forces of Sun Quan
Sun Quan
Sun Quan , son of Sun Jian, formally Emperor Da of Wu, was the founder of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He ruled from 222 to 229 as King of Wu and from 229 to 252 as Emperor of Wu....
and Liu Bei
Liu Bei
Liu Bei , also known as Liu Xuande, was a warlord, military general and later the founding emperor of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history...
. The Han Dynasty formally ended in 220 when Cao Cao's son and heir, Cao Pi
Cao Pi
Cao Pi , formally known as Emperor Wen of Wei, was the first emperor of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. Born in Qiao County, Pei Commandery , he was the second son of the late Han Dynasty warlord Cao Cao.Cao Pi, like his father, was a poet...
, pressured Emperor Xian into abdicating in his favour. Cao Pi became the emperor of a new state, Cao Wei
Cao Wei
Cao Wei was one of the states that competed for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period. With the capital at Luoyang, the state was established by Cao Pi in 220, based upon the foundations that his father Cao Cao laid...
. A year later, in response to Cao Pi's usurpation of the Han throne, Liu Bei declared himself emperor of Shu Han
Shu Han
Shu Han was one of the three states competing for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period, after the fall of the Han Dynasty. The state was based on areas around Sichuan, which was then known as Shu...
; and in 229, Sun Quan followed suit, declaring himself emperor of Eastern Wu
Eastern Wu
Eastern Wu, also known as Sun Wu, was one the three states competing for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period after the fall of the Han Dynasty. It was based in the Jiangnan region of China...
. The period from Emperor Xian's abdication in 220 to the partial reunification of China under the Jin Dynasty in 265 was known as the Three Kingdoms
Three Kingdoms
The Three Kingdoms period was a period in Chinese history, part of an era of disunity called the "Six Dynasties" following immediately the loss of de facto power of the Han Dynasty rulers. In a strict academic sense it refers to the period between the foundation of the state of Wei in 220 and the...
era in Chinese history.
Rise of regional authorities
Towards the end of the reign of Emperor Ling of HanEmperor Ling of Han
Emperor Ling of Han, trad. ch. 漢靈帝;, sim. ch. 汉灵帝, py. hàn líng dì, wg. Han Ling-ti, was an emperor of the Chinese Han Dynasty. He was a great-great-grandson of Emperor Zhang. The Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out during Emperor Ling's reign.Emperor Ling's reign saw yet another repetition of...
(r. 168–189), many officials in the imperial court foresaw chaos in the political scene as soon as Emperor Ling died. One of those officials, Liu Yan, suggested to Emperor Ling in 188 that the root of the agrarian revolts during that time, including the most serious Yellow Turban Rebellion
Yellow Turban Rebellion
The Yellow Turban Rebellion, also translated as Yellow Scarves Rebellion, was a peasant revolt that broke out in 184 AD in China during the reign of Emperor Ling of the Han Dynasty...
of 184, was that Inspectors (刺史) lacked substantial administrative powers. Emperor Ling, convinced by Liu Yan, changed the Inspectors' titles to "Governor" (牧) and granted them the authority to levy taxes and command armed forces within the borders. Liu Yan was commissioned as the Governor of Yi Province (益州; covering the Sichuan Basin
Sichuan basin
The Sichuan Basin is a lowland region in southwestern China. Despite its historical name, it is not only synonymous to Sichuan province, comprising its central and eastern portions as well as part of Chongqing Municipality...
), while several other important officials also became Governors, including Liu Yu, who was appointed Governor of You Province (幽州; covering present-day northern Hebei
Hebei
' is a province of the People's Republic of China in the North China region. Its one-character abbreviation is "" , named after Ji Province, a Han Dynasty province that included what is now southern Hebei...
, Beijing
Beijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
, Tianjin
Tianjin
' is a metropolis in northern China and one of the five national central cities of the People's Republic of China. It is governed as a direct-controlled municipality, one of four such designations, and is, thus, under direct administration of the central government...
and Liaoning
Liaoning
' is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the northeast of the country. Its one-character abbreviation is "辽" , a name taken from the Liao River that flows through the province. "Níng" means "peace"...
). The increased influence of these provincial governors formed the basis on which later warlords would control large regions of the Han empire.
Domination by Empress Dowager He and He Jin
Emperor Ling died in 189 and was succeeded by his 13-year-old son, Liu BianPrince of Hongnong
The Prince of Hongnong , was briefly an emperor of China during the Han dynasty. He is also known as "Emperor Han Shao" , a name which he shares with several other emperors with brief reigns...
(born to Empress He
Empress He (Ling)
Empress He , personal name unknown, formally known as Empress Lingsi was an empress of the Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. She was Emperor Ling's second wife...
), who became known as Emperor Shao. Empress He, now empress dowager
Empress Dowager
Empress Dowager was the title given to the mother of a Chinese, Korean, Japanese or Vietnamese emperor.The title was also given occasionally to another woman of the same generation, while a woman from the previous generation was sometimes given the title of Grand empress dowager. Numerous empress...
, became regent
Regent
A regent, from the Latin regens "one who reigns", is a person selected to act as head of state because the ruler is a minor, not present, or debilitated. Currently there are only two ruling Regencies in the world, sovereign Liechtenstein and the Malaysian constitutive state of Terengganu...
to the young emperor, while her older brother, General-in-Chief He Jin
He Jin
He Jin was the elder half-brother of Empress He, consort to Emperor Ling of the late Eastern Han Dynasty in China. He shared power with his sister as regents in 189, following the death of Emperor Ling. In the ensuing struggle with the influential eunuch faction for power, He Jin was assassinated...
, became the most powerful official in the imperial court. He Jin and Yuan Shao
Yuan Shao
Yuan Shao was a warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He occupied the northern territories of China during the civil war that occurred towards the end of the Han Dynasty and the beginning of the Three Kingdoms era...
plotted to exterminate all the Ten Attendants
Ten Attendants
The Ten Attendants were a group of eunuchs from the Eunuch Faction of the Han Imperial Court in China...
, a group of ten influential eunuch
Eunuch
A eunuch is a person born male most commonly castrated, typically early enough in his life for this change to have major hormonal consequences...
officials in the court, but Empress Dowager He disapproved of their plan. In a fateful move, He Jin summoned Dong Zhuo
Dong Zhuo
Dong Zhuo was a politician and warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He seized control of the capital city Luoyang in 189 when it was in a state of turmoil following the death of Emperor Ling and a clash between the eunuch faction and some court officials led by...
, a warlord controlling the battle-tested Liang Province (涼州; covering present-day Gansu
Gansu
' is a province located in the northwest of the People's Republic of China.It lies between the Tibetan and Huangtu plateaus, and borders Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and Ningxia to the north, Xinjiang and Qinghai to the west, Sichuan to the south, and Shaanxi to the east...
), to march on the capital Luoyang
Luoyang
Luoyang is a prefecture-level city in western Henan province of Central China. It borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the east, Pingdingshan to the southeast, Nanyang to the south, Sanmenxia to the west, Jiyuan to the north, and Jiaozuo to the northeast.Situated on the central plain of...
to threaten Empress Dowager He into eliminating the Ten Attendants. After the eunuchs discovered He Jin's plot, they lured him into the palace and murdered him. In response, Yuan Shao led the imperial guards on an indiscriminate massacre of the palace eunuchs. The surviving eunuchs kidnapped Emperor Shao and his younger brother, the eight-year-old Prince of Chenliu (raised by his grandmother Empress Dowager Dong
Empress Dowager Dong
Empress Dowager Dong , personal name unknown, formally known as Empress Xiaocheng , was an empress dowager of Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. However, she was never empress, because she became mother to an emperor...
), and fled north towards the Yellow River
Yellow River
The Yellow River or Huang He, formerly known as the Hwang Ho, is the second-longest river in China and the sixth-longest in the world at the estimated length of . Originating in the Bayan Har Mountains in Qinghai Province in western China, it flows through nine provinces of China and empties into...
, but were finally forced to commit suicide by throwing themselves into the river.
Dong Zhuo arrived on the scene and found Emperor Shao and the Prince of Chenliu. The young emperor appeared nervous and fearful, while the prince remained calm and composed, and gave orders to Dong Zhuo to escort them back to the palace. Dong Zhuo used the opportunity to seize control of state power and bring his army into the capital. Not long later, Dong Zhuo deposed Emperor Shao and replaced him with the Prince of Chenliu, who became known as Emperor Xian
Emperor Xian of Han
Emperor Xian of Han , personal name Liu Xie, style name Bohe, was the last emperor of the Han Dynasty period of Chinese history...
. Dong Zhuo dominated the imperial court and named himself "Chancellor of State" (相國), a title not held by anyone since the Western Han Dynasty statesman Xiao He
Xiao He
Xiao He was a Chinese statesman who lived during the early Han Dynasty. He served Liu Bang during the insurrection against the Qin Dynasty, and fought on Liu's side in the Chu–Han contention against Xiang Yu. After the founding of the Han Dynasty, Xiao He became chancellor and held office until...
; Dong Zhuo also granted himself the privilege of attending court without needing to disarm himself or remove his shoes.
Resistance against Dong Zhuo
In the spring of 190, several provincial officials and warlords formed a coalition against Dong Zhuo, claiming that he was set on usurping the throne and had effectively kidnapped Emperor Xian. Yuan ShaoYuan Shao
Yuan Shao was a warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He occupied the northern territories of China during the civil war that occurred towards the end of the Han Dynasty and the beginning of the Three Kingdoms era...
, Administrator of Bohai (渤海; covering present-day Cangzhou
Cangzhou
Cangzhou is a prefecture-level city in Hebei province, People's Republic of China. Cangzhou's urban center has a population of approximately 514,074 at the 2010 census which correspond to the built up area), while the prefecture-level administrative region in total has a population of 7,134,053...
, Hebei
Hebei
' is a province of the People's Republic of China in the North China region. Its one-character abbreviation is "" , named after Ji Province, a Han Dynasty province that included what is now southern Hebei...
), was nominated to be the leader of the coalition. The coalition armies was stationed at Henei (河內; in present-day Jiaozuo
Jiaozuo
Jiaozuo is a prefecture-level city in northern Henan province, People's Republic of China. Sitting on the northern bank of the Yellow River, it borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the south, Xinxiang to the east, Jiyuan to the west, Luoyang to the southwest, and the province of Shanxi...
, Henan
Henan
Henan , is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the central part of the country. Its one-character abbreviation is "豫" , named after Yuzhou , a Han Dynasty state that included parts of Henan...
) and appeared to be ready to move on the capital Luoyang
Luoyang
Luoyang is a prefecture-level city in western Henan province of Central China. It borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the east, Pingdingshan to the southeast, Nanyang to the south, Sanmenxia to the west, Jiyuan to the north, and Jiaozuo to the northeast.Situated on the central plain of...
. However, the coalition was actually rather disorganized, and Yuan Shao did not have effective command over the entire alliance. Besides, the coalition members were also hesitant to directly confront Dong Zhuo and his strong Liang Province military. Still, Dong Zhuo was anxious and chose to move the capital to Chang'an
Chang'an
Chang'an is an ancient capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history, today known as Xi'an. Chang'an literally means "Perpetual Peace" in Classical Chinese. During the short-lived Xin Dynasty, the city was renamed "Constant Peace" ; yet after its fall in AD 23, the old name was restored...
in the west to avoid the coalition. About a month later, Dong Zhuo forced Emperor Xian and the imperial court to move to Chang'an, along with Luoyang's residents, and in the process, he ordered the former capital to be destroyed by fire. During the move, Dong Zhuo remained near Luoyang, ready to resist any coalition attacks on him. In 191, the coalition tried to further de-legitimize Dong Zhuo's position by offering to enthrone Liu Yu, who was eligible to be Emperor since he was a member of the royal clan. Liu Yu remained faithful to Emperor Xian and firmly declined to take the throne. As the coalition members continued to bicker over battle plans, a minor general under Yuan Shu
Yuan Shu
Yuan Shu was a warlord during the late Han Dynasty era of Chinese history. He rose to prominence following the collapse of the imperial court in 189. He was said to be a younger cousin of the warlord Yuan Shao, but was actually Yuan Shao's younger half-brother...
, Sun Jian
Sun Jian
Sun Jian was a military general and warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He allied himself with Yuan Shu in 190 when warlords from eastern China formed a coalition to oust Dong Zhuo, a tyrannical warlord who held the puppet Emperor Xian in his power...
, took a calculated risk and attacked Dong Zhuo directly near Luoyang. After scoring a number of victories over Dong Zhuo's forces, Sun Jian eventually forced Dong to retreat to Chang'an, and Luoyang came under the coalition's control.
For the following months until the end of 191, the coalition ceased to take further action against Dong Zhuo, and eventually disbanded and the members returned to their respective bases. Soon, a number of officials started having thoughts of controlling and ruling over their own territories like kings. The most prominent warlords who emerged at that time included:
- Yuan Shao, who seized control of Ji Province (冀州; covering present-day central and southern HebeiHebei' is a province of the People's Republic of China in the North China region. Its one-character abbreviation is "" , named after Ji Province, a Han Dynasty province that included what is now southern Hebei...
and northern HenanHenanHenan , is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the central part of the country. Its one-character abbreviation is "豫" , named after Yuzhou , a Han Dynasty state that included parts of Henan...
) from Han Fu in 191 - Liu Yan, who controlled Yi Province
- Liu BiaoLiu BiaoLiu Biao , style name Jingsheng , was a warlord and the governor of Jing Province during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He was a member of the extended family of the Han Dynasty emperors...
, who controlled Jing Province (荊州; covering present-day HubeiHubei' Hupeh) is a province in Central China. The name of the province means "north of the lake", referring to its position north of Lake Dongting...
and HunanHunan' is a province of South-Central China, located to the south of the middle reaches of the Yangtze River and south of Lake Dongting...
) - Yuan Shu, Yuan Shao's half-brother (cousin in name), who controlled the area south of the Huai RiverHuai RiverThe Huai River is a major river in China. The Huai River is located about mid-way between the Yellow River and Yangtze River, the two largest rivers in China, and like them runs from west to east...
(covering present-day northern and central AnhuiAnhuiAnhui is a province in the People's Republic of China. Located in eastern China across the basins of the Yangtze River and the Huai River, it borders Jiangsu to the east, Zhejiang to the southeast, Jiangxi to the south, Hubei to the southwest, Henan to the northwest, and Shandong for a tiny...
)
However, in addition to these greater warlords, in time the entire Han empire virtually fractured into small blocs, each controlled by a local warlord.
Dong Zhuo's death
After Dong Zhuo withdrew to Chang'an, he maintained an even tighter grip on the government and cruelly dealt with all dissent against him. Interior Minister Wang YunWang Yun
Wang Yun was a Minister over the Masses under Emperor Xian during the late Eastern Han Dynasty of China. During Wang Yun's time, the emperors were mere puppets under the power of eunuchs and warlords. In 192, Wang Yun plotted and successfully staged Lü Bu's assassination of Dong Zhuo, the...
and a few other officials, including Huang Wan (黃琬), Shisun Rui (士孫瑞), and Yang Zan (楊瓚), plotted to eliminate Dong Zhuo. They eventually persuaded Dong Zhuo's foster son, Lü Bu
Lü Bu
Lü Bu was a military general and later a minor warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. According to the Records of Three Kingdoms, Lü Bu was highly-skilled in horse-riding and archery, and was thus nicknamed "Flying General"...
, to join them. Lü Bu bore a grudge against Dong Zhuo because the latter almost killed him once during a fit of anger, and also because he was afraid that his secret affair with one of Dong Zhuo's maids might be exposed. In May 192, the conspirators, led by Lü Bu and Wang Yun, assassinated Dong Zhuo and slaughtered his clan.
Failure to return to normality
After Dong Zhuo's death, it was believed that the chaos caused by Dong Zhuo's "reign of terror" would subside, and the central government would be restored to its original state. However, although Wang Yun was regarded as a capable minister, he gradually became arrogant and made several key mistakes that would cause his downfall. He failed to maintain good relations with Lü Bu, and strongly refused to grant amnesty to the surviving followers of Dong Zhuo and ordered them to be disbanded. This caused Dong Zhuo's men to fear that they might be massacred. Dong Zhuo's son-in-law, Niu FuNiu Fu
Niu Fu was a general serving under the warlord Dong Zhuo during the late Han Dynasty era of Chinese history.Niu Fu served under Dong Zhuo, who was also his father-in-law. When Dong Zhuo burned Luoyang to the ground and retreated to Chang'an, Niu Fu was sent to defend Anyi. After Dong Zhuo was...
, took control of Dong's forces in Liang Province and resisted Wang Yun, but later died in a friendly fire incident. Niu Fu's subordinates, Li Jue, Guo Si
Guo Si
Guo Si , also known as Guo Duo , was a general serving under the warlord Dong Zhuo during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He assisted Dong in his many campaigns, and was placed under Dong's son-in-law after Dong relocate the imperial capital to Chang'an...
and Fan Chou
Fan Chou
Fan Chou was a general serving under the warlord Dong Zhuo during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history.After Dong Zhuo died by his adoptive son Lü Bu by an assassination plot by Wang Yun. He along with Li Jue, Guo Si, and Zhang Ji defeated Lü Bu then defeated Wang Yun, which they taken...
, wanted to submit to the imperial court, but as they had previously resisted Wang Yun, Wang now rejected their request for amnesty. Li Jue, Guo Si and Fan Chou led their armies to attack Chang'an and took control of the government. Wang Yun was captured and executed along with his family, while Lü Bu was defeated and driven away.
Continued warfare
In 193, armed conflict broke out between the northern warlords Liu Yu and Gongsun Zan
Gongsun Zan
Gongsun Zan , style name Bogui , a native of Liaoxi , was a warlord during the late Han Dynasty era of Chinese history.-Biography:...
. Liu Yu strongly opposed warfare while Gongsun Zan continuously waged war against Yuan Shao
Yuan Shao
Yuan Shao was a warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He occupied the northern territories of China during the civil war that occurred towards the end of the Han Dynasty and the beginning of the Three Kingdoms era...
. Liu Yu and Gongsun Zan made accusations against each other in their respective memorials to Emperor Xian. Eventually, Liu Yu was unable to tolerate Gongsun Zan and attacked the latter, but was defeated and killed.
In 195, turmoil ensued in Chang'an when Li Jue and Guo Si killed Fan Chou together, and later turned against each other. Li Jue held Emperor Xian hostage while Guo Si kidnapped the imperial officials, and both sides engaged in battle. Later that year, Li Jue and Guo Si made peace and agreed to allow Emperor Xian to return to the old capital, Luoyang
Luoyang
Luoyang is a prefecture-level city in western Henan province of Central China. It borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the east, Pingdingshan to the southeast, Nanyang to the south, Sanmenxia to the west, Jiyuan to the north, and Jiaozuo to the northeast.Situated on the central plain of...
, but later regretted their decision and pursued him. While Li Jue and Guo Si were never able to capture Emperor Xian again, the imperial court was rendered poor and unable to fend for itself. As Luoyang had been previously devastated by fire during Dong Zhuo's time, the city lacked the basic essentials of life and many officials starved to death or resorted to cannibalism
Cannibalism
Cannibalism is the act or practice of humans eating the flesh of other human beings. It is also called anthropophagy...
. Around this time, Ju Shou
Ju Shou
Ju Shou was an advisor serving under the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history.-Biography:Ju Shou was considered to be one of the most brilliant advisors of Yuan Shao and often gave honest and loyal advice to Yuan, who ignored him most of the time since they often...
suggested to Yuan Shao to welcome Emperor Xian to his province so that he could take effective control of the government. However, Guo Tu
Guo Tu
Guo Tu was an advisor to the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. Yuan often sought his advice for civil and military decisions.-Serving Yuan Shao:...
and Chunyu Qiong
Chunyu Qiong
Chunyu Qiong was a military general serving under the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He played a significant part in the Battle of Guandu in 200.-Biography:...
opposed Ju Shou's view, claiming that if Yuan Shao brought Emperor Xian to his territory, he would need to yield to the emperor on key decisions and follow proper court protocol. Yuan Shao remained hesitant and did not come to a conclusion on whether to receive the emperor or not.
Cao Cao's use of Emperor Xian as titular authority
While Yuan Shao was still indecisive on whether to welcome Emperor Xian or not, Cao CaoCao Cao
Cao Cao was a warlord and the penultimate chancellor of the Eastern Han Dynasty who rose to great power during the dynasty's final years. As one of the central figures of the Three Kingdoms period, he laid the foundations for what was to become the state of Cao Wei and was posthumously titled...
took advantage of the situation to bring the emperor to his territory. At that time, Cao Cao was still a relatively minor warlord, with only Yan Province (兗州; covering present-day western Shandong
Shandong
' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...
and eastern Henan
Henan
Henan , is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the central part of the country. Its one-character abbreviation is "豫" , named after Yuzhou , a Han Dynasty state that included parts of Henan...
) under his control. In 196, Cao Cao led his army towards Luoyang. He encountered Dong Cheng
Dong Cheng
Dong Cheng was originally a subordinate general of Niu Fu during the late Han Dynasty, and later joined forces with the White Wave Bandits to protect the emperor from the hands of Li Jue and Guo Si. He was also Emperor Xian's father-in-law...
and Yang Feng (who were shielding Emperor Xian from Li Jue and Guo Si), convinced them of his loyalty, and was allowed to meet the emperor. In name, Cao Cao was sharing power with the other officials and nobles, but actually he was in control, but yet he ensured that the officials and nobles were treated with due respect, hence he faced minimal opposition in the imperial court. Later, Cao Cao escorted the emperor back to his base in Xu (許; present-day Xuchang
Xuchang
Xuchang is a prefecture-level city in central Henan province in Central China. It borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the northwest, Kaifeng to the northeast, Zhoukou to the east, Luohe to the southeast, and Pingdingshan to the southwest....
, Henan), establishing the new capital there.
From then on, although Cao Cao was a subject of Emperor Xian in name, he actually wielded state power and controlled the imperial court. Despite so, Cao Cao never showed disrespect to Emperor Xian, and instead, honoured the emperor according to formal imperial protocol. Cao Cao also issued imperial edicts in Emperor Xian's name to other warlords, ordering them to submit to imperial authority when in fact they were actually submitting to him. When Cao Cao sent Yuan Shao an edict in the emperor's name, only then did Yuan realized that he had lost an opportunity to make use of the emperor to control other warlords.
Cao Cao's rise to power
Even after moving to the new capital at Xu, the central government still lacked funds and food supplies. As suggested by Zao Zhi (棗祇), Cao Cao implemented a new tuntianTuntian
The Tuntian or Duntian system was a system of government-encouraged agriculture originated in the Western Han Dynasty period of Chinese history...
policy to promote agricultural production, in which soldiers were sent to grow crops, and the harvest would be shared between the military and civilian population. The policy yielded commendable results as the area around Xu developed into highly productive farmland and the problem of shortage of food was resolved.
At this time, the most prominent warlords in China were:
- Yuan Shao, who controlled Ji, Bing and Qing provinces (covering most of present-day HebeiHebei' is a province of the People's Republic of China in the North China region. Its one-character abbreviation is "" , named after Ji Province, a Han Dynasty province that included what is now southern Hebei...
, ShanxiShanxi' is a province in Northern China. Its one-character abbreviation is "晋" , after the state of Jin that existed here during the Spring and Autumn Period....
and ShandongShandong' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...
). Some of the territories were governed by Yuan Shao's three sons (Yuan TanYuan TanYuan Tan was the oldest son of the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. After Yuan Shao's death, Yuan Tan split with his youngest brother Yuan Shang over the successorship to their father's realm. Yuan Tan sought help from the warlord Cao Cao and defeated Yuan...
, Yuan XiYuan XiYuan Xi was the second son of the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty era of Chinese history.Yuan was described in Luo Guanzhong's historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms as "intelligent but weak and indecisive", in contrast to his older brother Yuan Tan, who was described as...
and Yuan ShangYuán ShàngYuan Shang , style name Xianfu , was a warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He was the third son of the warlord Yuan Shao, and succeeded his father...
) and nephew (Gao GanGao GanGao Gan was a governor of Bing Province during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He was a nephew of the warlord Yuan Shao and a cousin of Gao Rou. After the dissolution of the coalition against Dong Zhuo, warlords all across China returned to their respective territories...
). - Yuan ShuYuan ShuYuan Shu was a warlord during the late Han Dynasty era of Chinese history. He rose to prominence following the collapse of the imperial court in 189. He was said to be a younger cousin of the warlord Yuan Shao, but was actually Yuan Shao's younger half-brother...
, who controlled most of present-day AnhuiAnhuiAnhui is a province in the People's Republic of China. Located in eastern China across the basins of the Yangtze River and the Huai River, it borders Jiangsu to the east, Zhejiang to the southeast, Jiangxi to the south, Hubei to the southwest, Henan to the northwest, and Shandong for a tiny...
and parts of JiangsuJiangsu' is a province of the People's Republic of China, located along the east coast of the country. The name comes from jiang, short for the city of Jiangning , and su, for the city of Suzhou. The abbreviation for this province is "苏" , the second character of its name... - Gongsun ZanGongsun ZanGongsun Zan , style name Bogui , a native of Liaoxi , was a warlord during the late Han Dynasty era of Chinese history.-Biography:...
, who controlled You Province, including present-day BeijingBeijingBeijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
, TianjinTianjin' is a metropolis in northern China and one of the five national central cities of the People's Republic of China. It is governed as a direct-controlled municipality, one of four such designations, and is, thus, under direct administration of the central government...
and western LiaoningLiaoning' is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the northeast of the country. Its one-character abbreviation is "辽" , a name taken from the Liao River that flows through the province. "Níng" means "peace"... - Liu BiaoLiu BiaoLiu Biao , style name Jingsheng , was a warlord and the governor of Jing Province during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He was a member of the extended family of the Han Dynasty emperors...
, who controlled Jing Province (covering present-day HubeiHubei' Hupeh) is a province in Central China. The name of the province means "north of the lake", referring to its position north of Lake Dongting...
and HunanHunan' is a province of South-Central China, located to the south of the middle reaches of the Yangtze River and south of Lake Dongting...
) - Liu ZhangLiu Zhang (warlord)Liu Zhang was a warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He became governor of Yi Province , succeeding his father Liu Yan and ruled the region until 214, when he surrendered to Liu Bei...
, who controlled Yi Province (covering the Sichuan BasinSichuan basinThe Sichuan Basin is a lowland region in southwestern China. Despite its historical name, it is not only synonymous to Sichuan province, comprising its central and eastern portions as well as part of Chongqing Municipality...
) - Lü BuLü BuLü Bu was a military general and later a minor warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. According to the Records of Three Kingdoms, Lü Bu was highly-skilled in horse-riding and archery, and was thus nicknamed "Flying General"...
, who seized control of Xu Province (covering present-day northern JiangsuJiangsu' is a province of the People's Republic of China, located along the east coast of the country. The name comes from jiang, short for the city of Jiangning , and su, for the city of Suzhou. The abbreviation for this province is "苏" , the second character of its name...
) from its previous governor Liu BeiLiu BeiLiu Bei , also known as Liu Xuande, was a warlord, military general and later the founding emperor of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history...
There were still many other minor warlords, and Cao Cao particularly sought to get them to submit to him. In 197, Zhang Xiu
Zhang Xiu
Zhang Xiu was a minor warlord during the late Han Dynasty era of Chinese history. He eventually surrendered to Cao Cao in 200. Having contributed greatly to the decisive Battle of Guandu and subsequent campaigns against the heirs of Yuan Shao, Zhang Xiu died en route Liucheng on a campaign to...
surrendered Wancheng to Cao Cao. However, Cao Cao later had an affair with Zhang Xiu's widowed aunt, angering Zhang, who rebelled and launched a surprise attack on Cao Cao at Wancheng. In this battle
Battle of Wancheng
The Battle of Wancheng or Battle of Wan City was a battle fought between the warlords Cao Cao and Zhang Xiu in 197 during the prelude to the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history...
, Cao Cao's oldest son Cao Ang
Cao Ang
Cao Ang was the eldest son of the late Han Dynasty warlord Cao Cao. He was killed during the Battle of Wancheng after giving up his horse to his father during their escape.-Biography:Cao Ang was born to Cao Cao and Lady Liu...
, nephew Cao Anmin
Cao Anmin
Cao Anmin was the nephew of the warlord Cao Cao, who lived during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history.In 197, Cao Anmin followed Cao Cao on a campaign to conquer Jing Province . Zhang Xiu, a minor warlord who occupied Wancheng , surrendered to Cao Cao...
, and bodyguard Dian Wei
Dian Wei
Dian Wei was a military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. Famed for his enormous strength, Dian Wei excelled in wielding dual halberds, each of which was said to weigh 40 jin...
were killed, and Cao Cao himself narrowly escaped from death. On the advice of Jia Xu
Jia Xu
Jia Xu , style name Wenhe , was an advisor to the warlord Cao Cao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He previously served Dong Zhuo, Li Jue and Zhang Xiu before finally joining Cao Cao...
, Zhang Xiu eventually surrendered to Cao Cao in 200. In addition, in 197, Cao Cao was able to persuade Ma Teng
Ma Teng
Ma Teng was a warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He controlled Liang Province together with his sworn brother Han Sui...
and Han Sui
Han Sui
Han Sui was a warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. For most of his life he was active in Liang Province and was involved in several rebellions against the Han Dynasty and against the warlord Cao Cao.-Biography:With the backing of the Qiang people who populated much of...
, who controlled Yong and Liang provinces (covering most of present-day Shaanxi
Shaanxi
' is a province in the central part of Mainland China, and it includes portions of the Loess Plateau on the middle reaches of the Yellow River in addition to the Qinling Mountains across the southern part of this province...
and Gansu
Gansu
' is a province located in the northwest of the People's Republic of China.It lies between the Tibetan and Huangtu plateaus, and borders Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and Ningxia to the north, Xinjiang and Qinghai to the west, Sichuan to the south, and Shaanxi to the east...
), to submit to him.
That year, Yuan Shu declared himself "Son of Heaven
Son of Heaven
Son of Heaven may refer to:* Emperor of China* Emperor of Japan* Emperors of Vietnam* Son of God* Son of Heaven , book on Guangxu Emperor by Princess Der Ling...
" in Shouchun (壽春; present-day Shou County
Shou County
Shou County is a county in Anhui Province, People's Republic of China, under the jurisdiction of Lu'an City. It has population is 1,280,000 and its area is 2986 square kilometers...
, Anhui), an act perceived as treason against the Han Dynasty government, prompting other warlords to use that as an excuse to attack him (see Campaign against Yuan Shu
Campaign against Yuan Shu
The campaign against Yuan Shu was a punitive expedition that took place in 199 during the prelude to the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. The campaign was initiated by the Han Dynasty government against the Zhong Dynasty of Yuan Shu, after Yuan declared himself "Son of Heaven", an act...
). Sun Ce
Sun Ce
Sun Ce was a military general and warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He was the oldest of the children of Sun Jian who was killed during the Battle of Xiangyang when Sun Ce was only 16. Sun Ce then broke away from his father's overlord, Yuan Shu, and headed to...
, son of Sun Jian
Sun Jian
Sun Jian was a military general and warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He allied himself with Yuan Shu in 190 when warlords from eastern China formed a coalition to oust Dong Zhuo, a tyrannical warlord who held the puppet Emperor Xian in his power...
, who had conquered several territories in Jiangdong
Jiangnan
Jiangnan or Jiang Nan is a geographic area in China referring to lands immediately to the south of the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, including the southern part of the Yangtze Delta...
between 194 and 199, ended his alliance with Yuan Shu and became an independent warlord. Lü Bu, who was also previously Yuan Shu's ally, broke ties with Yuan and dealt him a major defeat near Shouchun. Cao Cao also attacked Yuan Shu and defeated him. Yuan Shu attempted to flee north to join Yuan Shao but his way was blocked and he eventually died of illness on the way back to Shouchun in 199.
In 198, Yuan Shao tried to persuade Cao Cao to move the capital to Juancheng (鄄城; in present-day Heze
Heze
Heze is a prefecture-level city in southwestern Shandong province, People's Republic of China. The westernmost prefecture-level city in Shandong, it borders Jining to the east and the provinces of Henan and Anhui to the west and south respectively. The old name of Heze was Caozhou and now a part...
, Shandong), which was nearer to his own territory, in an attempt to wrestle Emperor Xian away from Cao, but Cao refused. Later that year, Cao Cao joined forces with Liu Bei to attack Lü Bu, defeating him at the Battle of Xiapi
Battle of Xiapi
The Battle of Xiapi was a battle fought by the forces of Lü Bu against the allied armies of Cao Cao and Liu Bei in 198 during the prelude to the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history...
. Lü Bu was captured and executed on Cao Cao's order, and Xu Province came under Cao's control.
In 199, Gongsun Zan was defeated by Yuan Shao at the Battle of Yijing
Battle of Yijing
The Battle of Yijing was a battle that took place in northern China between 198 and 199 during the prelude to the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history...
and he committed suicide by setting himself on fire. Gongsun Zan's territories, which extended to the northern boundaries of the Han Dynasty's empire, were completely annexed by Yuan Shao. Yuan Shao then turned his attention south towards Cao Cao, who was an emerging power in central China. Yuan formed an alliance with Liu Biao and was intent on attacking Cao Cao.
The Battle of Guandu
Against the advice of Ju ShouJu Shou
Ju Shou was an advisor serving under the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history.-Biography:Ju Shou was considered to be one of the most brilliant advisors of Yuan Shao and often gave honest and loyal advice to Yuan, who ignored him most of the time since they often...
and Tian Feng
Tian Feng
Tian Feng , style name Yuanhao , was an advisor to the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history.-In Romance of the Three Kingdoms:...
, who reasoned that their troops were exhausted after the battles against Gongsun Zan and needed rest, Yuan Shao prepared for a campaign against Cao Cao, confident that his much larger army could easily crush Cao Cao's. While Cao Cao readied himself for battle, he discovered that Dong Cheng
Dong Cheng
Dong Cheng was originally a subordinate general of Niu Fu during the late Han Dynasty, and later joined forces with the White Wave Bandits to protect the emperor from the hands of Li Jue and Guo Si. He was also Emperor Xian's father-in-law...
, Liu Bei and a few other officials were conspiring against him. In early 200, Liu Bei used an opportunity to break away from Cao Cao and seize control of Xu Province, after killing Cao Cao's appointed governor of the province, Che Zhou (車冑). On the other hand, Dong Cheng and the others were making plans to assassinate Cao Cao. However, the plot was exposed and all the conspirators in the capital were massacred along with their families. Cao Cao then took a risk by attacking Liu Bei in Xu Province, leaving his flank open to attacks from Yuan Shao. However, Cao Cao made a right choice because Yuan Shao did not heed Tian Feng's urging to seize the chance to attack him. Liu Bei was defeated and he fled north to join Yuan Shao. Liu Bei's general Guan Yu
Guan Yu
Guan Yu was a general serving under the warlord Liu Bei during the late Eastern Han Dynasty of China. He played a significant role in the civil war that led to the collapse of the Han Dynasty and the establishment of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period, of which Liu Bei was the...
surrendered to Cao Cao and temporarily served under Cao.
Only after Liu Bei's defeat did Yuan Shao start implementing his plan to attack Cao Cao, but this time Tian Feng opposed his decision, saying that their opportunity had passed. Yuan Shao became annoyed with Tian Feng and had Tian imprisoned, after which he led his army south to attack Cao Cao. At the Battle of Boma
Battle of Boma
The Battle of Boma or Battle of Baima was the first of a series of battles that led to the decisive Battle of Guandu between the warlords Yuan Shao and Cao Cao in northern China during the prelude to the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history...
, Yuan Shao's general Yan Liang
Yan Liang
Yan Liang was a military general serving under the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He was slain by Guan Yu at the Battle of Boma.-Biography:...
was slain by Guan Yu while another of Yuan's generals, Wen Chou
Wen Chou
Wen Chou was a military general serving under the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. His force was defeated by that of rival warlord Cao Cao in the Battle of Yan Ford and he was killed in the midst of battle....
, was killed in action against Cao Cao's forces. The morale of Yuan Shao's army was greatly affected by the loss of the two generals.
By late 200, the armies of Yuan Shao and Cao Cao finally clashed at Guandu (官渡; in present-day Zhengzhou
Zhengzhou
Zhengzhou , is the capital and largest city of Henan province in north-central China. A prefecture-level city, it also serves as the political, economic, technological, and educational centre of the province, as well as a major transportation hub for Central China...
, Henan
Henan
Henan , is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the central part of the country. Its one-character abbreviation is "豫" , named after Yuzhou , a Han Dynasty state that included parts of Henan...
), south of the Yellow River
Yellow River
The Yellow River or Huang He, formerly known as the Hwang Ho, is the second-longest river in China and the sixth-longest in the world at the estimated length of . Originating in the Bayan Har Mountains in Qinghai Province in western China, it flows through nine provinces of China and empties into...
. Yuan Shao had two advantages over Cao Cao - numerical superiority and greater amount of supplies, but Cao Cao's troops were better trained than his. After some minor skirmishes, both sides became locked in a stalemate, until Cao Cao personally led a small detachment on a surprise attack on Yuan Shao's supply depot at Wuchao, which was defended by Chunyu Qiong
Chunyu Qiong
Chunyu Qiong was a military general serving under the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He played a significant part in the Battle of Guandu in 200.-Biography:...
. Instead of sending reinforcements to Wuchao, Yuan Shao sent Zhang He
Zhang He
Zhang He was a military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao during the late Han Dynasty era of Chinese history. He continued serving the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period until his death....
and Gao Lan
Gao Lan
Gao Lan was a military general serving under the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He fought in many battles and was respected as a brave man by Yuan. He defected to Cao Cao's side after Yuan's defeat in the Battle of Guandu.-Serving Yuan Shao:Cao Cao and Yuan...
to attack Cao Cao's camp, but was unsuccessful. The fall of Wuchao dealt a major blow to the morale of Yuan Shao's army, which was subsequently routed by Cao Cao's forces. Yuan Shao fled north of the Yellow River while most of his troops were either killed or surrendered to Cao Cao. From that point on, although Yuan Shao continued to remain as a major power player, he could no longer challenge Cao Cao's growing supremacy.
Fall of the Yuan power bloc
Yuan Tan
Yuan Tan was the oldest son of the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. After Yuan Shao's death, Yuan Tan split with his youngest brother Yuan Shang over the successorship to their father's realm. Yuan Tan sought help from the warlord Cao Cao and defeated Yuan...
and third son Yuan Shang
Yuán Shàng
Yuan Shang , style name Xianfu , was a warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He was the third son of the warlord Yuan Shao, and succeeded his father...
. Several years before Yuan Shao's death, based on the traditional order of succession, Yuan Tan should have been designated as the heir apparent
Heir apparent
An heir apparent or heiress apparent is a person who is first in line of succession and cannot be displaced from inheriting, except by a change in the rules of succession....
, but as Yuan Shao's wife Lady Liu favoured Yuan Shang, so Yuan Shao had Yuan Tan posthumously adopted by the latter's uncle, Yuan Cheng (袁成). Yuan Shao then divided his territories between his sons and nephew Gao Gan
Gao Gan
Gao Gan was a governor of Bing Province during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He was a nephew of the warlord Yuan Shao and a cousin of Gao Rou. After the dissolution of the coalition against Dong Zhuo, warlords all across China returned to their respective territories...
, ostensibly so that he could determine their abilities. His base of Ji Province was given to Yuan Shang, Yuan Tan controlled Qing Province, while Yuan Xi
Yuan Xi
Yuan Xi was the second son of the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty era of Chinese history.Yuan was described in Luo Guanzhong's historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms as "intelligent but weak and indecisive", in contrast to his older brother Yuan Tan, who was described as...
governed You Province, and Gao Gan ruled Bing Province. On his deathbed, Yuan Shao did not leave any explicit instruction as to who should succeed him. Of Yuan Shao's followers, Pang Ji and Shen Pei
Shen Pei
Shen Pei was a minister serving under the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. Shen was criticized by Cao Cao's advisor Xun Yu many times as being called "strong of will but without tact". Following the death of Yuan Shao, Shen went on to serve under Yuan Shang....
supported Yuan Shang, while Xin Ping
Xin Ping
Xin Ping , style name Zhongzhi , was a minister serving under the warlord Han Fu during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. Following the death of Han Fu, Xin went on to serve Yuan Shao, acting as an adviser to Yuan Tan, Yuan Shao's oldest son. Once, Xin was invited by Cao Cao to serve...
and Guo Tu
Guo Tu
Guo Tu was an advisor to the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. Yuan often sought his advice for civil and military decisions.-Serving Yuan Shao:...
favoured Yuan Tan. After Yuan Shao's death, most of his subordinates initially wanted Yuan Tan to be their new lord, since he was the oldest son. However, Shen Pei and Pang Ji forged a will, naming Yuan Shang as the successor. Yuan Tan was furious and mobilized his forces under the pretext of attacking Cao Cao, drawing Cao's attention, and Cao preemptively retaliated. Yuan Shang came to his oldest brother's aid, and they fought inconclusively against Cao Cao in the Battle of Liyang
Battle of Liyang
The Battle of Liyang during the end of Han Dynasty in China was an invasion attempt by the warlord Cao Cao against the brothers Yuan Shang and Yuan Tan, sons of Cao Cao's rival Yuan Shao. The battle in the ninth Chinese month of 202 was the first between the two factions since the death of Yuan...
.
In 203, Cao Cao scored a major victory over the Yuans, who retreated back to Ji Province's capital, Ye
Ye, China
Ye or Yecheng was an ancient Chinese city located in what is now Linzhang County, Hebei and the neighbouring Anyang County, Henan....
(鄴). Cao Cao then planned to besiege Ye, but later withdrew his forces after heeding Guo Jia
Guo Jia
Guo Jia was a strategist and advisor to the warlord Cao Cao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. During his 11 years of service, Guo Jia's brilliance greatly aided Cao Cao in his victories over rival warlords Lü Bu and Yuan Shao, as well as chief of the Wuhuan tribe, Tadun...
's advice. Guo Jia reasoned that if Cao Cao pressured the Yuans, they might unite against a common enemy; however, if Cao Cao retreated, the disgruntled Yuan brothers would start fighting among themselves. Guo Jia's prediction came true later when Yuan Tan, still bearing a grudge against Yuan Shang for receiving a larger inheritance, attacked Yuan Shang, but his forces in Qing Province defected to Yuan Shang. Yuan Tan fled to Pingyuan (平原; in present-day Dezhou
Dezhou
Dezhou is a prefecture-level city in northwestern Shandong province, People's Republic of China. It borders the provincial capital of Jinan to the southeast, Liaocheng to the southwest, Binzhou to the northeast, and the province of Hebei to the north....
, Shandong
Shandong
' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...
) and was besieged by Yuan Shang there. Yuan Tan sought help from Cao Cao, and Cao advanced north to attack Ye, forcing Yuan Shang to lift the siege on Pingyuan. In early 204, Yuan Shang incorrectly believed that Cao Cao had withdrawn, so he attacked his brother again at Pingyuan. Cao Cao attacked Ye once more
Battle of Ye
The Battle of Ye of 204 took place during the prelude to the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. It was fought between the warlord Cao Cao and Yuan Shang, son and successor of Cao Cao's rival Yuan Shao, in the Yuan clan's headquarters Ye...
and Yuan Shang headed back to defend his base, but was defeated by Cao Cao. Yuan Shang then fled north to Zhongshan (中山; in present-day Shijiazhuang
Shijiazhuang
Shijiazhuang is the capital and largest city of North China's Hebei province. Administratively a prefecture-level city, it is about south of Beijing...
, Hebei), and Ye fell to Cao Cao. Gao Gan also surrendered Bing Province to Cao Cao.
During Cao Cao's siege on Ye, Yuan Tan did not help attack Ye but sought to take Yuan Shang's territories, defeating Yuan Shang in Zhongshan. Yuan Shang fled further north to join Yuan Xi in You Province. Cao Cao now accused Yuan Tan of breaching the trust in the alliance so he turned east to attack him, capturing Yuan Tan's last stronghold at Nanpi (南皮; in present-day Cangzhou
Cangzhou
Cangzhou is a prefecture-level city in Hebei province, People's Republic of China. Cangzhou's urban center has a population of approximately 514,074 at the 2010 census which correspond to the built up area), while the prefecture-level administrative region in total has a population of 7,134,053...
, Hebei) and killing Yuan. Meanwhile in You Province, Yuan Xi's subordinate Jiao Chu (焦觸) revolted and surrendered to Cao Cao, forcing Yuan Xi and Yuan Shang to flee further north to join the Wuhuan
Wuhuan
The Wuhuan were a proto-Mongolic nomadic people who inhabited northern China, in what is now the provinces of Hebei, Liaoning, Shanxi, the municipality of Beijing and the autonomous region of Inner Mongolia....
tribes under chief Tadun. Around this time, Gao Gan also rebelled against Cao Cao, but was defeated by 206 and killed while attempting to flee south to join Liu Biao
Liu Biao
Liu Biao , style name Jingsheng , was a warlord and the governor of Jing Province during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He was a member of the extended family of the Han Dynasty emperors...
.
In 207, Cao Cao's army headed north to attack the Wuhuan, defeating them at the Battle of White Wolf Mountain
Battle of White Wolf Mountain
The Battle of White Wolf Mountain was a battle fought in 207 during the prelude to the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. The battle took place in northern China, beyond the frontiers of the ruling Later Han Dynasty. It was fought between the warlord Cao Cao and the nomadic Wuhuan tribes,...
. Tadun was killed in battle while Yuan Xi and Yuan Shang sought refuge under Gongsun Kang
Gongsun Kang
Gongsun Kang was a warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He became a vassal of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period.-Biography:...
, a warlord who controlled most of present-day Liaoning
Liaoning
' is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the northeast of the country. Its one-character abbreviation is "辽" , a name taken from the Liao River that flows through the province. "Níng" means "peace"...
. Gongsun Kang feared that the Yuans might turn against him and seize his territory, so he had them executed and sent their heads to Cao Cao. By this time, the Yuan clan had been completely eliminated and much of northern China had been reunified under Cao Cao's control.
Developments in southern China
In the years after his reunification of northern China, Cao Cao did not conduct any major campaigns while awaiting an opportunity to act against the remaining three most prominent warlords: Sun QuanSun Quan
Sun Quan , son of Sun Jian, formally Emperor Da of Wu, was the founder of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He ruled from 222 to 229 as King of Wu and from 229 to 252 as Emperor of Wu....
, who had succeeded his older brother Sun Ce
Sun Ce
Sun Ce was a military general and warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He was the oldest of the children of Sun Jian who was killed during the Battle of Xiangyang when Sun Ce was only 16. Sun Ce then broke away from his father's overlord, Yuan Shu, and headed to...
after the latter was assassinated in 200; Liu Biao
Liu Biao
Liu Biao , style name Jingsheng , was a warlord and the governor of Jing Province during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He was a member of the extended family of the Han Dynasty emperors...
; Liu Zhang
Liu Zhang (warlord)
Liu Zhang was a warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He became governor of Yi Province , succeeding his father Liu Yan and ruled the region until 214, when he surrendered to Liu Bei...
. During that time, Sun Quan was also developing his the territories in Jiangdong
Jiangnan
Jiangnan or Jiang Nan is a geographic area in China referring to lands immediately to the south of the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, including the southern part of the Yangtze Delta...
, which he inherited from Sun Ce, and strengthening his military forces. In 208, Sun Quan defeated and killed Liu Biao's vassal Huang Zu
Huang Zu
Huang Zu was a military general serving under the warlord Liu Biao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He was an experienced naval commander, and was most famous for having skillful warriors like Sun Jian and Ling Cao killed in battle.-Background:Huang was born in an influential...
at the Battle of Xiakou
Battle of Xiakou
The Battle of Xiakou was a battle fought between the warlords Sun Quan and Liu Biao in 203 during the prelude to the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. Sun Quan's forces attempted to conquer Jiangxia Commandery , which was defended by Liu Biao's general Huang Zu...
, seizing most of Huang's territory at Jiangxia
Jiangxia
Jiangxia District is one of the administrative districts within the City of Wuhan. Jiangxia district has an area of 2,009 km² and a population of 680,000....
(江夏; present-day Yunmeng County
Yunmeng County
Yunmeng County is a county in Hubei Province, People's Republic of China administered by Xiaogan City.-History:...
, Hubei
Hubei
' Hupeh) is a province in Central China. The name of the province means "north of the lake", referring to its position north of Lake Dongting...
).
While Cao Cao was attacking the Yuan clan in northern China, Liu Bei
Liu Bei
Liu Bei , also known as Liu Xuande, was a warlord, military general and later the founding emperor of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history...
fled south to join Liu Biao and became a vassal under the latter. In 208, Cao Cao launched a southern campaign to conquer Liu Biao's Jing Province. Liu Biao was ill and dying, when a succession struggle broke out between his sons Liu Qi and Liu Cong. After Huang Zu's defeat, Liu Qi was appointed by Liu Biao as Administrator of Jiangxia, which was previously governed by Huang. Liu Cong, who was favoured by Liu Biao's second wife Lady Cai
Lady Cai
Lady Cai was the second wife of the warlord Liu Biao, who was in charge of Jing Province during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history....
(because he married her niece), remained in Jing Province's capital, Xiangyang
Xiangyang
Xiangzhou District is a district of Xiangyang, Hubei, China. The district itself was formerly known as Xiangyang. It was a city famous for the Siege of Xiangyang by invading forces of the Mongol-founded Yuan Dynasty...
. Liu Cong became the new Governor of Jing Province after his father's death. Fearing that he might be caught in a war on two fronts (Cao Cao in the north and Liu Qi in the southeast), Liu Cong surrendered to Cao Cao, and most of Jing Province came under Cao Cao's control. Liu Bei was unwilling to submit to Cao Cao and fled south. Along the way, one of Cao Cao's light cavalry units caught up with Liu Bei's retreating forces (which included civilians) and defeated them at the Battle of Changban
Battle of Changban
The Battle of Changban was a battle fought between the warlords Cao Cao and Liu Bei in 208 during the prelude to the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history...
. Liu Bei escaped with his life and fled to Dangyang (當陽; in present-day Yichang
Yichang
Yichang is a prefecture-level city located in Hubei province of the People's Republic of China. It is the second largest city in Hubei province after the province capital, Wuhan. The Three Gorges Dam is located within its administrative area, in Yiling District.-History:In ancient times Yichang...
, Hubei).
In Jiangdong, Sun Quan felt threatened by Cao Cao's approaching army and sent Lu Su
Lu Su
Lu Su , style name Zijing , was a politician, militarist and diplomat serving under the warlord Sun Quan during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history...
to discuss forming an alliance with Liu Bei and Liu Qi against Cao Cao. Cao Cao wrote Sun Quan a letter, intended to intimidate the latter into submitting. Cao Cao's army was estimated to be 220,000 men strong, although Cao himself claimed that he had 800,000 troops. Sun Quan had 30,000 men at most while Liu Bei and Liu Qi's combined forces totaled about 10,000. In view of Cao Cao's overwhelming forces, many of Sun Quan's followers, including Zhang Zhao
Zhang Zhao
Zhang Zhao was an official of Eastern Wu during the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era of China.-Biography:Zhang was born in present-day Jiangsu. A brilliant scholar, he devoted his life mainly to the study of Chinese classic texts...
, strongly advocated surrender. However, Sun Quan refused as he agreed with Zhou Yu
Zhou Yu
Zhou Yu was a military general and strategist who served his close friend, the warlord Sun Ce, during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history...
and Lu Su's view that Cao Cao might not let him off even if he submitted. By late 208, with help from Zhou Yu and Lu Su (and Zhuge Liang
Zhuge Liang
Zhuge Liang was a chancellor of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He is often recognised as the greatest and most accomplished strategist of his era....
, who represented Liu Bei in the diplomatic exchange), an alliance was formed between Sun Quan and Liu Bei against Cao Cao.
The Battle of Red Cliffs
Sun Quan put Zhou Yu in command of his 30,000 troops, largely stationed on naval vessels. Zhou Yu set up a defensive position in conjunction with Liu Bei, whose army garrisoned on land. Around this time, a spreading plague significantly weakened Cao Cao's forces. Zhou Yu's subordinate Huang GaiHuang Gai
Huang Gai was a military general who served the warlord Sun family of Eastern Wu for three generations during the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history...
pretended to defect to Cao Cao's side and was accepted by the latter. Huang Gai brought with him a small group of men and they sailed towards Cao Cao's base on boats. As the boats approached Cao Cao's fleet, Huang Gai ordered his men to set the boats on fire, and the burning boats crashed into Cao Cao's larger ships. The fire spread out of control and completely destroyed Cao Cao's entire naval fleet. Cao Cao's land forces at Wulin (烏林; in present-day Honghu
Honghu
Honghu is a county-level city in the municipal region of Jingzhou, in central China's Hubei province. The city lies on the left bank of the Yangzi River, across from Hunan Province and Xianning, Hubei...
, Hubei
Hubei
' Hupeh) is a province in Central China. The name of the province means "north of the lake", referring to its position north of Lake Dongting...
) were also attacked and driven back by Sun Quan and Liu Bei's armies. Cao Cao suffered a drastic defeat at the Battle of Red Cliffs
Battle of Red Cliffs
The Battle of Red Cliffs, otherwise known as the Battle of Chibi, was a decisive battle at the end of the Han Dynasty, immediately prior to the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. It was fought in the winter of 208/9 AD between the allied forces of the southern warlords Liu Bei and Sun Quan...
and was forced to retreat north back to Jiangling (江陵, located in present-day Jingjiang 荆江, not to be confused with present-day Jiangling County, Hubei).
Sun–Liu conquest of Jing Province
Immediately after the Battle of Red CliffsBattle of Red Cliffs
The Battle of Red Cliffs, otherwise known as the Battle of Chibi, was a decisive battle at the end of the Han Dynasty, immediately prior to the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. It was fought in the winter of 208/9 AD between the allied forces of the southern warlords Liu Bei and Sun Quan...
, Sun Quan's forces under Zhou Yu
Zhou Yu
Zhou Yu was a military general and strategist who served his close friend, the warlord Sun Ce, during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history...
's command pressed on another attack on Cao Cao, leading to the Battle of Jiangling
Battle of Jiangling
The Battle of Jiangling was fought by the allied forces of Sun Quan and Liu Bei against Cao Cao during the prelude to the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history...
. On the other hand, Liu Bei used the opportunity to attack the four commanderies of Wuling, Changsha, Lingling and Guiyang in southern Jing Province and bring them under his control. By early 209, Cao Cao had lost most of Jing Province to the allies.
As Liu Bei had become relatively more powerful after his conquests of the four commanderies, Sun Quan became apprehensive of him and decided to strengthen their alliance by arranging for a marriage between his younger sister, Lady Sun
Lady Sun
Lady Sun, known as Sun Shangxiang in Chinese opera and contemporary culture, was a noble lady in the late Eastern Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. She was a daughter of Sun Jian and younger sister of the warlords Sun Ce and Sun Quan, who laid the foundation for the state of...
, and Liu Bei. Zhou Yu was suspicious of Liu Bei's intentions and suggested to Sun Quan to capture Liu Bei, put him under house arrest, and then take control over Liu's forces. However, Sun Quan rejected Zhou Yu's idea as he believed that Liu Bei's forces would rebel against him even if the plan succeeded. Sun Quan did agree with Zhou Yu's suggestion to consider attacking the warlords Liu Zhang
Liu Zhang (warlord)
Liu Zhang was a warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He became governor of Yi Province , succeeding his father Liu Yan and ruled the region until 214, when he surrendered to Liu Bei...
and Zhang Lu, who controlled parts of western China, including present-day southern Shaanxi
Shaanxi
' is a province in the central part of Mainland China, and it includes portions of the Loess Plateau on the middle reaches of the Yellow River in addition to the Qinling Mountains across the southern part of this province...
and the Sichuan Basin
Sichuan basin
The Sichuan Basin is a lowland region in southwestern China. Despite its historical name, it is not only synonymous to Sichuan province, comprising its central and eastern portions as well as part of Chongqing Municipality...
. The plan was not set into motion and eventually aborted when Zhou Yu died in 210. Even though Sun Quan did not expand his borders west, he managed to persuade several local leaders in present-day Guangdong
Guangdong
Guangdong is a province on the South China Sea coast of the People's Republic of China. The province was previously often written with the alternative English name Kwangtung Province...
, Guangxi
Guangxi
Guangxi, formerly romanized Kwangsi, is a province of southern China along its border with Vietnam. In 1958, it became the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China, a region with special privileges created specifically for the Zhuang people.Guangxi's location, in...
and northern Vietnam
Vietnam
Vietnam – sometimes spelled Viet Nam , officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam – is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by China to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea –...
to submit to him, and these territories became part of his domain. Sun Quan then agreed to "lend" northern Jing Province to Liu Bei as well when the latter complained that the south lacked resources to sustain his military.
Liu Bei's takeover of Yi Province
Cao Cao, after resting his forces for several years in light of his defeat at the Battle of Red Cliffs, made a major advance again in 211, this time to ostensibly to attack Zhang Lu of HanzhongHanzhong
Hanzhong is a municipality in southwest Shaanxi Province, China, occupying a historically significant valley in the mountains between the Xi'an area, home to many Chinese capitals, and the fertile but isolated Sichuan Basin...
. Warlords Han Sui
Han Sui
Han Sui was a warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. For most of his life he was active in Liang Province and was involved in several rebellions against the Han Dynasty and against the warlord Cao Cao.-Biography:With the backing of the Qiang people who populated much of...
and Ma Chao
Ma Chao
Ma Chao was the oldest son of Ma Teng and a military general during the late Han Dynasty and early Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. In Luo Guanzhong's historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, he received the nickname "Ma Chao the Splendid" due to his elaborate armour and grand skill...
, who controlled Liang and Yong provinces, suspected that Cao Cao had designs on them and launched attacks in retaliation. A coalition of forces from west of Hangu Pass
Hangu Pass
Hangu Pass was a strategic pass in ancient China just south of the great eastern bend of the Yellow River in today's Lingbao, Henan Province...
, led by Ma Chao and Han Sui, were defeated by Cao Cao at the Battle of Tong Pass
Battle of Tong Pass (211)
The Battle of Tong Pass was fought between the warlord Cao Cao and a coalition of forces from Guanxi from March to September 211 during the prelude to the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. The battle was initiated by Cao Cao's western expansion, which triggered uprisings in Guanxi...
in 211, and their territories were annexed by Cao over the next few years.
Liu Zhang
Liu Zhang (warlord)
Liu Zhang was a warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He became governor of Yi Province , succeeding his father Liu Yan and ruled the region until 214, when he surrendered to Liu Bei...
of Yi Province became worried of possible attacks from Zhang Lu and Cao Cao, so he sent Fa Zheng
Fa Zheng
Fa Zheng , style name Xiaozhi , was an advisor to the warlord Liu Bei during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history....
to invite Liu Bei into his domain to help him defend against Zhang Lu and Cao Cao. Fa Zheng was unimpressed with Liu Zhang's governorship and wanted Liu Bei to replace his lord, so he urged Liu Bei to use the opportunity to take control of Yi Province. Liu Bei heeded Fa Zheng's suggestion and led his army into Yi Province, where he received a warm welcome from Liu Zhang. Liu Zhang sent Liu Bei to station at Jiameng Pass in northern Yi Province to resist Zhang Lu.
In 212, Liu Bei and Liu Zhang turned hostile towards each other and waged war. Zhuge Liang
Zhuge Liang
Zhuge Liang was a chancellor of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He is often recognised as the greatest and most accomplished strategist of his era....
led a detachment of Liu Bei's forces left in Jing Province to join his lord in attacking Liu Zhang. Guan Yu
Guan Yu
Guan Yu was a general serving under the warlord Liu Bei during the late Eastern Han Dynasty of China. He played a significant role in the civil war that led to the collapse of the Han Dynasty and the establishment of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period, of which Liu Bei was the...
remained behind to defend Jing Province. In 215, Liu Bei had defeated much of Liu Zhang's forces and besieged him in his capital of Chengdu
Chengdu
Chengdu , formerly transliterated Chengtu, is the capital of Sichuan province in Southwest China. It holds sub-provincial administrative status...
. Liu Zhang surrendered and yielded Yi Province to Liu Bei. The province became Liu Bei's new base, and he used the mountainous surroundings as natural defenses against Cao Cao in the north.
In the same year Liu Bei took over Yi Province, diplomatic relations between him and Sun Quan deteriorated when he refused to return Jing Province, which he "borrowed" from Sun Quan five years ago. Sun Quan launched an initial attack on Guan Yu and much of eastern Jing Province quickly submitted. However, after negotiations between Guan Yu and Lu Su
Lu Su
Lu Su , style name Zijing , was a politician, militarist and diplomat serving under the warlord Sun Quan during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history...
, Liu Bei agreed to give up the three commanderies of Changsha, Jiangxia and Guiyang to Sun Quan, renewing their alliance and dividing Jing Province between them along the Xiang River
Xiang River
The Xiang River , in older transliterations as the Siang River or Hsiang River, is a river in southern China...
.
The Hanzhong Campaign
In 215, Cao Cao attacked Zhang Lu and defeated him at the Battle of YangpingBattle of Yangping
The Battle of Yangping, also known as the Battle of Yangping Pass, was fought between the warlords Cao Cao and Zhang Lu in 215 during the prelude to the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. The battle concluded with victory for Cao Cao....
. Zhang Lu surrendered and his domain in Hanzhong
Hanzhong
Hanzhong is a municipality in southwest Shaanxi Province, China, occupying a historically significant valley in the mountains between the Xi'an area, home to many Chinese capitals, and the fertile but isolated Sichuan Basin...
came under Cao Cao's control. Against the advice of his followers to move south and attack Liu Bei in Yi Province, Cao Cao withdrew his armies and left Xiahou Yuan
Xiahou Yuan
Xiahou Yuan was a military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He was killed in the Battle of Mount Dingjun against Liu Bei's general Huang Zhong in 219, and was given the posthumous title of Marquis Min , literally meaning "sympathetic...
in command of a small force to defend Hanzhong. The following year, Cao Cao pressured Emperor Xian into granting him a title of nobility, "King of Wei". Over the next few years, Cao Cao's style of living became more like the emperor's, and he also received greater honours.
In 217, Liu Bei started a campaign
Hanzhong Campaign
The Hanzhong Campaign was a military campaign launched by the warlord Liu Bei to seize control of the commandery of Hanzhong from his rival Cao Cao. The campaign took place between 217 and 219 during the prelude to the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history...
to seize Hanzhong from Cao Cao. After Xiahou Yuan was defeated and killed at the Battle of Mount Dingjun
Battle of Mount Dingjun
The Battle of Mount Dingjun was fought between the warlords Liu Bei and Cao Cao in 219 during the prelude to the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. Liu Bei's victory in the battle marked a major milestone in his Hanzhong Campaign.-The battle:...
in 219, Cao Cao became alarmed and quickly arrived with reinforcements to resist Liu Bei. Both sides became locked in a stalemate, except for a clash at the Battle of Han River
Battle of Han River
The Battle of Han River was fought between the warlords Liu Bei and Cao Cao in 219 during the prelude to the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history...
, before Cao Cao eventually decided to withdraw his forces, giving up Hanzhong to Liu Bei. Liu Bei subsequently declared himself "King of Hanzhong" after his victory.
Breaking of the Sun–Liu alliance
Around the time when Liu Bei was attacking Hanzhong, Guan YuGuan Yu
Guan Yu was a general serving under the warlord Liu Bei during the late Eastern Han Dynasty of China. He played a significant role in the civil war that led to the collapse of the Han Dynasty and the establishment of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period, of which Liu Bei was the...
also advanced north from Jing Province to attack Cao Cao's city of Fancheng (樊城; present-day Fancheng District, Xiangyang
Xiangyang
Xiangzhou District is a district of Xiangyang, Hubei, China. The district itself was formerly known as Xiangyang. It was a city famous for the Siege of Xiangyang by invading forces of the Mongol-founded Yuan Dynasty...
, Hubei
Hubei
' Hupeh) is a province in Central China. The name of the province means "north of the lake", referring to its position north of Lake Dongting...
), which was defended by Cao Ren
Cao Ren
Cao Ren was a military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao during the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. He played a significant part in assisting Cao Cao in the civil wars leading to the end of the Han Dynasty...
. While Cao Ren managed to hold on to his position firmly, Guan Yu besieged the city, and the situation was serious enough that Cao Cao even considered moving the capital away from Xu.
At the same time, Sun Quan
Sun Quan
Sun Quan , son of Sun Jian, formally Emperor Da of Wu, was the founder of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He ruled from 222 to 229 as King of Wu and from 229 to 252 as Emperor of Wu....
became increasingly resentful of Guan Yu because the latter had previously shown hostility towards him in three incidents: Guan Yu drove away the officials Sun Quan sent to the three commanderies that Liu Bei had promised to give up to Sun; Guan Yu forcefully seized food supplies from one of Sun Quan's bases for use in his Fancheng campaign; Guan Yu ridiculed Sun Quan when the latter proposed a marriage between his son and Guan's daughter. When Guan Yu was away attacking Fancheng, Sun Quan sent his general Lü Meng
Lü Meng
Lü Meng was a military general serving under the warlord Sun Quan during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He served as the commanding general in the invasion of Jing Province that led to the death of Guan Yu.-Early life:Lü Meng was born in Fupo, Runan Commandery in 178...
to launch an assault on Jing Province from the east, swiftly conquering the province within weeks. The morale of Guan Yu's forces fell sharply and his soldiers gradually deserted him until he was left with only about 300 men. Guan Yu was isolated and besieged by Sun Quan's forces in Maicheng, and he attempted to break out but fell into an ambush and was captured. Guan Yu refused to surrender and was eventually executed on Sun Quan's order. This marked the end of the alliance between Sun Quan and Liu Bei. Sun Quan nominally submitted to Cao Cao and was granted the title of "Marquis of Wu". Sun Quan also urged Cao Cao to take the emperor's throne but Cao declined.
Emperor Xian's abdication
Cao Cao died in March 220 and his son Cao PiCao Pi
Cao Pi , formally known as Emperor Wen of Wei, was the first emperor of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. Born in Qiao County, Pei Commandery , he was the second son of the late Han Dynasty warlord Cao Cao.Cao Pi, like his father, was a poet...
inherited the title of "King of Wei" without waiting for formal authorization from Emperor Xian. In the winter of 220, Emperor Xian sent the Imperial Seal
Imperial Seal of China
The Imperial Seal of China, or the Heirloom Seal of the Realm is a Chinese jade seal carved out of the He Shi Bi, a historically famous piece of jade.-Creation:...
to Cao Pi and issued an edict announcing that he was abdicating in favour of Cao Pi. Cao Pi formally declined to accept the throne thrice but obliged eventually. The Han Dynasty officially ended at that point and Cao Pi established the state of Cao Wei
Cao Wei
Cao Wei was one of the states that competed for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period. With the capital at Luoyang, the state was established by Cao Pi in 220, based upon the foundations that his father Cao Cao laid...
in its place, moving the capital from Xu back to Luoyang
Luoyang
Luoyang is a prefecture-level city in western Henan province of Central China. It borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the east, Pingdingshan to the southeast, Nanyang to the south, Sanmenxia to the west, Jiyuan to the north, and Jiaozuo to the northeast.Situated on the central plain of...
. The dethroned Emperor Xian was granted a title of "Duke of Shanyang".
In 221, Liu Bei declared himself emperor in Chengdu
Chengdu
Chengdu , formerly transliterated Chengtu, is the capital of Sichuan province in Southwest China. It holds sub-provincial administrative status...
and established the state of Shu Han
Shu Han
Shu Han was one of the three states competing for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period, after the fall of the Han Dynasty. The state was based on areas around Sichuan, which was then known as Shu...
. Sun Quan continued to remain as a nominal subject of Cao Pi until 222, when he declared himself king of a separate state, Wu (better known as Eastern Wu
Eastern Wu
Eastern Wu, also known as Sun Wu, was one the three states competing for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period after the fall of the Han Dynasty. It was based in the Jiangnan region of China...
in history). In 229, Sun Quan formally became emperor of Wu.