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Drum (container)
Encyclopedia
A drum is a cylindrical
container
used for shipping bulk cargo
. Drums can be made of steel
, dense paperboard
(commonly called a fiber drum), or plastic
s, and are generally used for the transportation and storage of liquids and powders. Drums are often certified for shipment of dangerous goods
. The construction of drum needs to meet applicable regulations and is usually matched for compatibility with the specific product shipped. Drums are also called barrel
s in common usage.
The two common sub-types of drums are the open top and the welded top (with 2 inches (5.1 cm) NPS
bung holes). The latter are almost universally called 'barrels' in preference to drums in the US. They cannot efficaciously either dispense or be filled with powdered goods, though they might store them very well, so are not used for such goods, being reserved for liquids transport and storage. Plastic drums are manufactured using injection blow moulding
technology and have either a separate lid (similar to those on fiber drums) or a welded type top with the bung holes molded in. Metal drums are manufactured with steel hot-rolled into long pipe-like sections then forged on a stamping press
while still red-hot into drum bodies. A welded rolled seam is then made for the drum bottom, or bottom and top both.
Some drums have reinforcing rings of thickened metal or plastic at four places: top, bottom, and one each a third of the way from each end ring. This sufficiently strengthens them so that they can readily be turned on their sides and rolled when filled with heavy materials, like liquids. Over short to medium distances, drums can be tipped and rolled on the bottom rim while being held at an angle, balanced, and rotated with a two-handed top grip that also supplies the torque (rotational or rolling force).
The open-top sub-type is sealed by a mechanical ring clamp (concave inwards) that exerts sufficient pressure to hold many non-volatile liquids and make an airtight seal against a gasket, as it exerts force inward and downward when tightened by a normal three-quarter inch wrench or rachet wrench. Tops exist with bung holes as above, and these hybrid drums with lid can be used to ship many non-volatile liquids as well as industrial powders. Many drums are used to ship and store powdered products as well as liquids, such as plastic beads for injection moulding, extrusion, and purified industrial grade powders like cleansers (e.g., fertilizers, and powdered aluminum). If used to transport dangerous goods across international boundaries, they may need to have UN certification. In general, drum usage is limited to wholesale distribution of bulk products, which are then further processed or sub-divided in a factory.
These metal drums have two openings with flanges (2" NPS
and 3/4" NPS
). Once the drums are filled, the plugs (bungs) are screwed in the flanges using pneumatic or hand operated bung tightener (plug wrench). Now to secure the contents of the drums against theft and adulteration during shipment, cap-seals made of metal and other types like metal+plastic are used. These cap-seals sit on top of the flanges and are 'crimped' using drum cap-seal crimping tools (also called drum cap sealers). Once cap-seals are crimped, the plugs can be unscrewed only by breaking these cap-seals. Pneumatic and hand-operated cap-seal crimping tools are available. Pneumatic ones are used in production lines for high production.
The Fiber drums referred to above will easily hold 400 pound, and are usually coated internally with a urethane or plastic protective coating. They have steel reinforcement rims at their ends, and are sufficiently strong that this is the only type of drum that is not reinforced in the middle third, but that is almost certainly due to the difficulty in creating a 'Vee' rib in a paper layer that essentially spirals out from a single end seam.
A 55-gallon drum (known as a 44-gallon drum in the United Kingdom
, Canada
, Ireland
, Australia
, New Zealand
, South Africa
and other former British dependencies, even though all those countries now officially use the metric system and the drums are filled to 200 litres) is a cylindrical container drum with a nominal capacity of 55 US gal (46 imp gal; 208 l). The exact capacity varies with wall thickness and other factors. Standard drums are 22.5 inches (572 mm) in diameter and 33.5 inches (851 mm) high (these dimensions yield a total volume of ~218 L). Exact dimensions are specified in ANSI MH2.
The drums are typically made of steel with a welded top and ribbed outer wall to improve rigidity and durability. They are commonly used for transporting oil
s and fuel
s, but can be used for storing various chemicals as well. The construction and performance of drums used for shipment of dangerous goods
or hazardous materials are strictly governed by UN, country, and carrier regulations.
The 55-gallon drum will fit handily four to a standard wooden shipping pallet
, and so ease handling by a fork truck
and shipping. The drum's size, shape, and weight distribution lends itself to being moved about readily on the loading dock or factory floor with a two-wheeled hand truck
. They can also be moved by hand short distances on firm surfaces by tilting and then rolling along the base, which is designed especially for that purpose.
Today's 55-gallon drum resulted from military shipping requirements in World War II
, the first war in which truck
s, cold rolled steel, stamp or pattern forging machinery and welding
were widely available. The drums helped win the Battle of Guadalcanal in the first U.S. offensive in the South Pacific Theater. The U.S. Navy could not maintain control of the seas long enough to offload aviation fuel
for U.S. aircraft ashore, so the drums were often transported to the island on fast ships such as destroyers and shoved over the sides (or, time permitting, lowered in cargo nets). Aviation fuel is lighter than seawater, so the drums floated, and Navy Seabees in small craft corralled the drums.
Closed-head steel
barrels and drums used for shipment of chemicals and petroleum products have a standardised bunghole
arrangement, with one 2-inch (50.8 mm) NPT
and one -inch (19 mm) NPT threaded bunghole on opposite sides of the top head. This arrangement is echoed in many plastic drums in the same size. Various components can be mounted to the drum, such as drum pumps and bung mixers.
In the past, hazardous waste
was often placed in drums of this size and stored in open fields or buried. Over time, some drums would corrode and leak. As a result, these drums have become iconic of pollution problems, even though they have numerous uses and are ubiquitous in commerce. Drums are often re-conditioned and then later used for storing different liquids. Shipping in reconditioned drums is one of the safest ways to remove hazardous waste.
Until the 1990s many state highway departments reused 55-gallon drums as barricades to protect construction workers from oncoming traffic. Once empty, the drums were painted orange and white and placed along roadways where construction and repairs were occurring. Today, construction crews more likely use plastic drums that resemble their steel predecessors in both size and shape. Also alongside the highways now are groups of specially engineered plastic drum-like containers arrayed in front of vulnerable locations such as large sign supports or bridge abutments, to protect errant motorists who otherwise might collide with these rigid structures. These "Fitch Barriers" often contain sand-filled compartments that break apart on impact, absorbing some of the energy of the collision, often saving lives.
Although oil is sometimes shipped in 55 US gallon drums, the measurement of oil in barrels
is based on the 42 US gallon wooden barrels of the 1870s; which is about 35 imperial gallons.
Cylinder (geometry)
A cylinder is one of the most basic curvilinear geometric shapes, the surface formed by the points at a fixed distance from a given line segment, the axis of the cylinder. The solid enclosed by this surface and by two planes perpendicular to the axis is also called a cylinder...
container
Intermediate bulk container
An Intermediate bulk container is a container used for transport and storage of fluids and bulk materials. The construction of the IBC container and the materials used are chosen depending on the application, i.e...
used for shipping bulk cargo
Bulk cargo
Bulk cargo is commodity cargo that is transported unpackaged in large quantities. This cargo is usually dropped or poured, with a spout or shovel bucket, as a liquid or as a mass of relatively small solids , into a bulk carrier ship's hold, railroad car, or tanker truck/trailer/semi-trailer body...
. Drums can be made of steel
Steel
Steel is an alloy that consists mostly of iron and has a carbon content between 0.2% and 2.1% by weight, depending on the grade. Carbon is the most common alloying material for iron, but various other alloying elements are used, such as manganese, chromium, vanadium, and tungsten...
, dense paperboard
Paperboard
Paperboard is a thick paper based material. While there is no rigid differentiation between paper and paperboard, paperboard is generally thicker than paper. According to ISO standards, paperboard is a paper with a basis weight above 224 g/m2, but there are exceptions. Paperboard can be single...
(commonly called a fiber drum), or plastic
Plastic
A plastic material is any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic solids used in the manufacture of industrial products. Plastics are typically polymers of high molecular mass, and may contain other substances to improve performance and/or reduce production costs...
s, and are generally used for the transportation and storage of liquids and powders. Drums are often certified for shipment of dangerous goods
Dangerous goods
Dangerous goods are solids, liquids, or gases that can harm people, other living organisms, property, or the environment. They are often subject to chemical regulations. "HazMat teams" are personnel specially trained to handle dangerous goods...
. The construction of drum needs to meet applicable regulations and is usually matched for compatibility with the specific product shipped. Drums are also called barrel
Barrel
A barrel or cask is a hollow cylindrical container, traditionally made of vertical wooden staves and bound by wooden or metal hoops. Traditionally, the barrel was a standard size of measure referring to a set capacity or weight of a given commodity. A small barrel is called a keg.For example, a...
s in common usage.
Background
It is common to hear a drum referred to as a barrel and the two terms are used nearly interchangeably. Many drums have a common nominal volume of 55 USgal (200 L) and nominally measure just under 34.5 inches (87.6 cm) tall with a diameter just under 24 inches (61 cm) and differ by holding about thirteen gallons more than a Barrel of Crude Oil one hears about (the quoted price thereof) in the daily financial news reports. In the US, 25 gallons (94.6 l) drums are also in common use and have the same height. This sameness allows easy stacking of mixed pallets. Barrels can be constructed of plastic, laminated paperboard or steel.The two common sub-types of drums are the open top and the welded top (with 2 inches (5.1 cm) NPS
Nominal Pipe Size
Nominal Pipe Size is a North American set of standard sizes for pipes used for high or low pressures and temperatures. Pipe size is specified with two non-dimensional numbers: a nominal pipe size for diameter based on inches, and a schedule for wall thickness...
bung holes). The latter are almost universally called 'barrels' in preference to drums in the US. They cannot efficaciously either dispense or be filled with powdered goods, though they might store them very well, so are not used for such goods, being reserved for liquids transport and storage. Plastic drums are manufactured using injection blow moulding
Blow molding
Blow molding is a manufacturing process by which hollow plastic parts are formed. In general, there are three main types of blow molding: extrusion blow molding, injection blow molding, and stretch blow molding. The blow molding process begins with melting down the plastic and forming it into a...
technology and have either a separate lid (similar to those on fiber drums) or a welded type top with the bung holes molded in. Metal drums are manufactured with steel hot-rolled into long pipe-like sections then forged on a stamping press
Stamping press
A stamping press is a metalworking machine tool used to shape or cut metal by deforming it with a die.-Bolster plate:The bolster plate is a large block of metal upon which the bottom portion of a die is clamped; the bolster plate is stationary...
while still red-hot into drum bodies. A welded rolled seam is then made for the drum bottom, or bottom and top both.
Some drums have reinforcing rings of thickened metal or plastic at four places: top, bottom, and one each a third of the way from each end ring. This sufficiently strengthens them so that they can readily be turned on their sides and rolled when filled with heavy materials, like liquids. Over short to medium distances, drums can be tipped and rolled on the bottom rim while being held at an angle, balanced, and rotated with a two-handed top grip that also supplies the torque (rotational or rolling force).
The open-top sub-type is sealed by a mechanical ring clamp (concave inwards) that exerts sufficient pressure to hold many non-volatile liquids and make an airtight seal against a gasket, as it exerts force inward and downward when tightened by a normal three-quarter inch wrench or rachet wrench. Tops exist with bung holes as above, and these hybrid drums with lid can be used to ship many non-volatile liquids as well as industrial powders. Many drums are used to ship and store powdered products as well as liquids, such as plastic beads for injection moulding, extrusion, and purified industrial grade powders like cleansers (e.g., fertilizers, and powdered aluminum). If used to transport dangerous goods across international boundaries, they may need to have UN certification. In general, drum usage is limited to wholesale distribution of bulk products, which are then further processed or sub-divided in a factory.
These metal drums have two openings with flanges (2" NPS
Nominal Pipe Size
Nominal Pipe Size is a North American set of standard sizes for pipes used for high or low pressures and temperatures. Pipe size is specified with two non-dimensional numbers: a nominal pipe size for diameter based on inches, and a schedule for wall thickness...
and 3/4" NPS
Nominal Pipe Size
Nominal Pipe Size is a North American set of standard sizes for pipes used for high or low pressures and temperatures. Pipe size is specified with two non-dimensional numbers: a nominal pipe size for diameter based on inches, and a schedule for wall thickness...
). Once the drums are filled, the plugs (bungs) are screwed in the flanges using pneumatic or hand operated bung tightener (plug wrench). Now to secure the contents of the drums against theft and adulteration during shipment, cap-seals made of metal and other types like metal+plastic are used. These cap-seals sit on top of the flanges and are 'crimped' using drum cap-seal crimping tools (also called drum cap sealers). Once cap-seals are crimped, the plugs can be unscrewed only by breaking these cap-seals. Pneumatic and hand-operated cap-seal crimping tools are available. Pneumatic ones are used in production lines for high production.
The Fiber drums referred to above will easily hold 400 pound, and are usually coated internally with a urethane or plastic protective coating. They have steel reinforcement rims at their ends, and are sufficiently strong that this is the only type of drum that is not reinforced in the middle third, but that is almost certainly due to the difficulty in creating a 'Vee' rib in a paper layer that essentially spirals out from a single end seam.
55-gallon drum
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
, Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
, Ireland
Ireland
Ireland is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth...
, Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
, New Zealand
New Zealand
New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses and numerous smaller islands. The country is situated some east of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and roughly south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga...
, South Africa
South Africa
The Republic of South Africa is a country in southern Africa. Located at the southern tip of Africa, it is divided into nine provinces, with of coastline on the Atlantic and Indian oceans...
and other former British dependencies, even though all those countries now officially use the metric system and the drums are filled to 200 litres) is a cylindrical container drum with a nominal capacity of 55 US gal (46 imp gal; 208 l). The exact capacity varies with wall thickness and other factors. Standard drums are 22.5 inches (572 mm) in diameter and 33.5 inches (851 mm) high (these dimensions yield a total volume of ~218 L). Exact dimensions are specified in ANSI MH2.
The drums are typically made of steel with a welded top and ribbed outer wall to improve rigidity and durability. They are commonly used for transporting oil
Oil
An oil is any substance that is liquid at ambient temperatures and does not mix with water but may mix with other oils and organic solvents. This general definition includes vegetable oils, volatile essential oils, petrochemical oils, and synthetic oils....
s and fuel
Fuel
Fuel is any material that stores energy that can later be extracted to perform mechanical work in a controlled manner. Most fuels used by humans undergo combustion, a redox reaction in which a combustible substance releases energy after it ignites and reacts with the oxygen in the air...
s, but can be used for storing various chemicals as well. The construction and performance of drums used for shipment of dangerous goods
Dangerous goods
Dangerous goods are solids, liquids, or gases that can harm people, other living organisms, property, or the environment. They are often subject to chemical regulations. "HazMat teams" are personnel specially trained to handle dangerous goods...
or hazardous materials are strictly governed by UN, country, and carrier regulations.
The 55-gallon drum will fit handily four to a standard wooden shipping pallet
Pallet
A pallet , sometimes called a skid, is a flat transport structure that supports goods in a stable fashion while being lifted by a forklift, pallet jack, front loader or other jacking device. A pallet is the structural foundation of a unit load which allows handling and storage efficiencies...
, and so ease handling by a fork truck
Forklift truck
A forklift is a powered industrial truck used to lift and transport materials. The modern forklift was developed in the 1920s by various companies including the transmission manufacturing company Clark and the hoist company Yale & Towne Manufacturing...
and shipping. The drum's size, shape, and weight distribution lends itself to being moved about readily on the loading dock or factory floor with a two-wheeled hand truck
Hand truck
A hand truck, also known as a Hannibal lectern, two wheeler, stack truck, dolly, trolley, trolley truck, sack barrow, sack truck, or bag barrow, is an L-shaped box-moving handcart with handles at one end, wheels at the base, with a small ledge to set objects on, flat against the floor when the...
. They can also be moved by hand short distances on firm surfaces by tilting and then rolling along the base, which is designed especially for that purpose.
Today's 55-gallon drum resulted from military shipping requirements in World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
, the first war in which truck
Truck
A truck or lorry is a motor vehicle designed to transport cargo. Trucks vary greatly in size, power, and configuration, with the smallest being mechanically similar to an automobile...
s, cold rolled steel, stamp or pattern forging machinery and welding
Welding
Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, usually metals or thermoplastics, by causing coalescence. This is often done by melting the workpieces and adding a filler material to form a pool of molten material that cools to become a strong joint, with pressure sometimes...
were widely available. The drums helped win the Battle of Guadalcanal in the first U.S. offensive in the South Pacific Theater. The U.S. Navy could not maintain control of the seas long enough to offload aviation fuel
Aviation fuel
Aviation fuel is a specialized type of petroleum-based fuel used to power aircraft. It is generally of a higher quality than fuels used in less critical applications, such as heating or road transport, and often contains additives to reduce the risk of icing or explosion due to high temperatures,...
for U.S. aircraft ashore, so the drums were often transported to the island on fast ships such as destroyers and shoved over the sides (or, time permitting, lowered in cargo nets). Aviation fuel is lighter than seawater, so the drums floated, and Navy Seabees in small craft corralled the drums.
Closed-head steel
Steel
Steel is an alloy that consists mostly of iron and has a carbon content between 0.2% and 2.1% by weight, depending on the grade. Carbon is the most common alloying material for iron, but various other alloying elements are used, such as manganese, chromium, vanadium, and tungsten...
barrels and drums used for shipment of chemicals and petroleum products have a standardised bunghole
Bunghole
A Bunghole or Bungehole is a hole bored in a liquid-tight barrel to remove contents. The hole is capped with a large cork-like object called a bung. Acceptable usage include other access points that may be capped with alternate materials providing an air or water-tight access to other vessels. For...
arrangement, with one 2-inch (50.8 mm) NPT
National pipe thread
National Pipe Thread Tapered Thread is a U.S. standard for tapered threads used on threaded pipes and fittings. The taper rate for all NPT threads is measured by the change of diameter over distance. The angle between the taper and the center axis of the pipe is 1° 47′ 24″...
and one -inch (19 mm) NPT threaded bunghole on opposite sides of the top head. This arrangement is echoed in many plastic drums in the same size. Various components can be mounted to the drum, such as drum pumps and bung mixers.
In the past, hazardous waste
Hazardous waste
A hazardous waste is waste that poses substantial or potential threats to public health or the environment. According to the U.S. environmental laws hazardous wastes fall into two major categories: characteristic wastes and listed wastes.Characteristic hazardous wastes are materials that are known...
was often placed in drums of this size and stored in open fields or buried. Over time, some drums would corrode and leak. As a result, these drums have become iconic of pollution problems, even though they have numerous uses and are ubiquitous in commerce. Drums are often re-conditioned and then later used for storing different liquids. Shipping in reconditioned drums is one of the safest ways to remove hazardous waste.
Until the 1990s many state highway departments reused 55-gallon drums as barricades to protect construction workers from oncoming traffic. Once empty, the drums were painted orange and white and placed along roadways where construction and repairs were occurring. Today, construction crews more likely use plastic drums that resemble their steel predecessors in both size and shape. Also alongside the highways now are groups of specially engineered plastic drum-like containers arrayed in front of vulnerable locations such as large sign supports or bridge abutments, to protect errant motorists who otherwise might collide with these rigid structures. These "Fitch Barriers" often contain sand-filled compartments that break apart on impact, absorbing some of the energy of the collision, often saving lives.
Although oil is sometimes shipped in 55 US gallon drums, the measurement of oil in barrels
Barrel (unit)
A barrel is one of several units of volume, with dry barrels, fluid barrels , oil barrel, etc...
is based on the 42 US gallon wooden barrels of the 1870s; which is about 35 imperial gallons.
See also
- BarrelBarrelA barrel or cask is a hollow cylindrical container, traditionally made of vertical wooden staves and bound by wooden or metal hoops. Traditionally, the barrel was a standard size of measure referring to a set capacity or weight of a given commodity. A small barrel is called a keg.For example, a...
- Corrugated fiberboard
- Packaging
- Pail (container)Pail (container)A Pail is a type of cylindrical container with a capacity of about 1 to 12 gal . It can have straight or slanted sides and usually has a handle or bail.-Construction:Pails can be made of*Steel, tinplate*Aluminium* Fiber, paperboard...
- PaperboardPaperboardPaperboard is a thick paper based material. While there is no rigid differentiation between paper and paperboard, paperboard is generally thicker than paper. According to ISO standards, paperboard is a paper with a basis weight above 224 g/m2, but there are exceptions. Paperboard can be single...
- Salvage drumSalvage drumA Salvage Drum is an outer container used for shipping a leaking, damaged or non-compliant drum containing hazardous materials.Originally designed to be greater than, or equal to, the construction and performance specifics of an inner container, the Performance Oriented Packaging Standards of the...
General references, further reading
- Performance tests of selected plastic drums, National Research Council Canada, February 2005. TP 14396E, Transport Canada, http://www.tc.gc.ca/eng/innovation/tdc-summary-14300-14396e-1372.htm
- Drop tests of selected steel drums, InNOVAcorp, 2003. TP 14093E, Transport Canada, http://www.tc.gc.ca/eng/tdg/publications-tp14093e-287.htm
- Soroka, W, "Fundamentals of Packaging Technology", IoPP, 2002, ISBN 1-930268-25-4
- Yam, K. L., "Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology", John Wiley & Sons, 2009, ISBN 978-0-470-08704-6