Construction Field Computing
Encyclopedia
Construction field computing is the use of handheld devices that augment the construction
Construction
In the fields of architecture and civil engineering, construction is a process that consists of the building or assembling of infrastructure. Far from being a single activity, large scale construction is a feat of human multitasking...

 superintendent's ability to manage the operations on a construction site. These information appliances (IA) must be portable
Portable
Portable may refer to:* Portable building, a manufactured structure that is built off site and moved in upon completion of site and utility work...

 devices which can be carried or worn by the user, and have computational and connectivity capacity to perform the tasks of communication management. Data entry and retrieval must be simple so that the user can manipulate the device while simultaneously moving, observing events, studying materials, checking quality, or performing other tasks required. Examples of these devices are the PDA
Personal digital assistant
A personal digital assistant , also known as a palmtop computer, or personal data assistant, is a mobile device that functions as a personal information manager. Current PDAs often have the ability to connect to the Internet...

, tablet PC
Tablet computer
A tablet computer, or simply tablet, is a complete mobile computer, larger than a mobile phone or personal digital assistant, integrated into a flat touch screen and primarily operated by touching the screen...

 and the smartphone.

Usage of information appliances in construction

Superintendents are often moving about the construction site or between various sites. Their responsibilities cover a wide variety of tasks such as:
  • Comparing planned to constructed conditions.
  • Coordinating and scheduling events and material delivery.
  • Monitoring jobsite conditions and correcting safety deficiencies, improving efficiency, and ensuring quality.
  • Recording and documenting work progress, labor, inspections, compliance to specifications, etc.
  • Communicating direction to specialty contractors, laborers, suppliers, etc.
  • Clarifying plans and specifications, resolving differing conditions, adapting methods and materials to site-specific requirements.


These tasks require that information is readily accessible and easily communicated to others and the company database. Since construction sites are unique, the device and system must be adaptable and flexible. Durability, predictability, and perceived value by the field management will determine the system's acceptance and thus proper use. Construction personnel are not well known for adapting to new technologies, but they do embrace methods that are proven to lighten work load and increase income.

Construction industry field personnel were quick to adopt new technologies such as the FAX machine and mobile phone
Mobile phone
A mobile phone is a device which can make and receive telephone calls over a radio link whilst moving around a wide geographic area. It does so by connecting to a cellular network provided by a mobile network operator...

, they have been slower to embrace the PC, tablet PC, PDA, and other devices. Disruptive technology
Disruptive technology
A disruptive technology or disruptive innovation is an innovation that helps create a new market and value network, and eventually goes on to disrupt an existing market and value network , displacing an earlier technology there...

 is usually difficult in construction field use for several reasons:
  • Field managers have often risen 'through the ranks' and learned from their predecessors how to run a construction site.
  • They commonly do not have exposure to higher education and the new methods and technologies being developed.
  • Field work is demanding and varied such that suitable and durable technologies are difficult to build. Failure of the device or system means schedule slip and increase costs so that using the new technology can be untenable.
  • Laborers generally are not highly educated and willing to invest time in change.
  • Construction is very schedule driven and time for training or learning new methods is rare. The learning curve
    Learning curve
    A learning curve is a graphical representation of the changing rate of learning for a given activity or tool. Typically, the increase in retention of information is sharpest after the initial attempts, and then gradually evens out, meaning that less and less new information is retained after each...

     is perceived to be too steep to justify implementing new technologies or methods not mandated by governing authorities or required by the contract documents.

Overcoming these issues is imperative for most construction firms. The augmentation and automation of managerial practices is required to make the construction process more efficient. The information appliance makes it possible field supervisors to access needed information, communicate requirements to others, and document the process effectively.

Connectivity and computing power

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An effective device will be able to process data into actionable information and transmit data and information to other devices or persons. The device may not actually perform computation of final communication, but it must appear as though it does. Extra steps to upload and download information will be perceived as a nuisance or waste of time to the user and cause the device to be underutilized. Some IAs are self-contained in that they have computing capacity and software to perform required tasks independent of a server or other devices. Others rely on connectivity with other devices and/or a server to perform required functions.

Fat client

A fat client
Fat client
A fat client is a computer in client–server architecture or networks that typically provides rich functionality independent of the central server...

 refers to a device that has sufficient speed and size to run programs and is loaded locally with software needed for operation. It can stand alone. Some advantages of this type of system are:
  • No need for continuous Wi-Fi, Bluetooth
    Bluetooth
    Bluetooth is a proprietary open wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances from fixed and mobile devices, creating personal area networks with high levels of security...

    , cell connection
    Cellular network
    A cellular network is a radio network distributed over land areas called cells, each served by at least one fixed-location transceiver known as a cell site or base station. When joined together these cells provide radio coverage over a wide geographic area...

     or other connectivity instrument for continuous operation. Data and operating functions are fully self-contained.
  • User generally has more control over the interface
    User interface
    The user interface, in the industrial design field of human–machine interaction, is the space where interaction between humans and machines occurs. The goal of interaction between a human and a machine at the user interface is effective operation and control of the machine, and feedback from the...

     so is able to adapt it to his/her own preferences and operational needs.
  • User has perception of governance
    Governance
    Governance is the act of governing. It relates to decisions that define expectations, grant power, or verify performance. It consists of either a separate process or part of management or leadership processes...

    . The idea that another device or a central server controls the process is disturbing to many free-spirited construction personnel.
  • Can be faster operationally than thin client since the device does not need to wait for transmitting data and server access time. With a good connection signal, however, this difference will most likely not be noticeable.

Thin client

A thin client
Thin client
A thin client is a computer or a computer program which depends heavily on some other computer to fulfill its traditional computational roles. This stands in contrast to the traditional fat client, a computer designed to take on these roles by itself...

 refers to a device that acts as a terminal
Computer terminal
A computer terminal is an electronic or electromechanical hardware device that is used for entering data into, and displaying data from, a computer or a computing system...

 or interface with a server or other device. Sometimes called dumb terminal, these devices do not have sufficient computing capacity or data storage capacity of process information, but only allow the user to access the software and data needed by them. Some advantages of this type of system are:
  • Real-time data. User both provides and has access to most current information. Information entered is immediately available to other users of the information through the central database
    Database
    A database is an organized collection of data for one or more purposes, usually in digital form. The data are typically organized to model relevant aspects of reality , in a way that supports processes requiring this information...

    . Updates from all contributors to the database are available immediately to the user.
  • Automated and instantaneous action. Communication or directives are performed and recorded instantly rather than occurring when the information is uploaded by the user.
  • More central control over information, operating systems, and the manner in which data is collected.
  • Lower software and hardware costs since only minimal computing capacity is needed on the thin client device and separate software for each unit is not required.
  • Thin client device is not useful as a stand-alone so that it is not attractive to fencers
    Fence (criminal)
    A fence is an individual who knowingly buys stolen property for later resale, sometimes in a legitimate market. The fence thus acts as a middleman between thieves and the eventual buyers of stolen goods who may or may not be aware that the goods are stolen. As a verb, the word describes the...

     and thus a less likely target of theft. (Thieves generally know which items are worth stealing.) Stolen devices are unlikely to be usable to non-authorized personnel. Therefore, proprietary information is protected.
  • Poka-yoke
    Poka-yoke
    ' is a Japanese term that means "fail-safing" or "mistake-proofing". A poka-yoke is any mechanism in a lean manufacturing process that helps an equipment operator avoid mistakes . Its purpose is to eliminate product defects by preventing, correcting, or drawing attention to human errors as they...

     or error reduction strategies for data entry are more easily accomplished with a standardized system that cannot be easily altered by the user. A well-designed system will identify possible errors such as entering letters when numbers are required, identifying answers generally inconsistent with field, etc.
  • More fully automates data transmission. Synchronization is not required as a separate activity which can be forgotten or take longer than the user wants to wait for.

Transparency and user friendliness

Computer transparency
Transparency (computing)
Any change in a computing system, such as new feature or new component, is transparent if the system after change adheres to previous external interface as much as possible while changing its internal behaviour. The purpose is to shield from change all systems on the other end of the interface...

 is important in construction because of the requirements listed in the 'usages' section in this article. Especially important here are the lack of training in computer sciences and need to remain focused on the job-site activities. Any suitable device and system should support the user without their understanding of the technical aspects of the computer or system. Any data functions operations must require no knowledge of the database schema. Response to commands or input should be immediate and reversible so that the user can quickly experiment and learn by doing without causing damage to the system or data. The user will most often feel that access to information and control over the system is not unduly limited. These traits will reduce user anxiety and encourage usage and acceptance of new technologies and systems.

User friendliness is needed due to the varied level of knowledge of the user. The functional options should be easily labeled and structured such that the user can understand by viewing the screen and by intuition. Usability will in large part determine whether or not the device and/or system is utilized. An ineffective tool is not only useless, but can be deleterious in that it takes time from the user, but does not return value. Even if the user only perceives the operation of the device to be worthless, he/she will be 'demotivated' to use the device and do so improperly or insufficiently. This will render the activity useless, fulfilling the expectation of failure.

Laptop and tablet PC

Laptop
Laptop
A laptop, also called a notebook, is a personal computer for mobile use. A laptop integrates most of the typical components of a desktop computer, including a display, a keyboard, a pointing device and speakers into a single unit...

 or notebook computers are small enough to be carried around the construction site, but too big to do so comfortably. Other disadvantages include:
  • They must be set down on a suitable surface to be used.
  • Require the use of both hands for proper operation.
  • Most laptops are not durable enough to stand up to the dirt, moisture, and rough handling prevalent on most job sites. Those that are 'construction resistant' are too expensive and a target of theft.


The tablet PC
Tablet computer
A tablet computer, or simply tablet, is a complete mobile computer, larger than a mobile phone or personal digital assistant, integrated into a flat touch screen and primarily operated by touching the screen...

 is basically a scaled down laptop with a touch screen that accepts handwriting rather than keyboard entry. Some do have keyboards, but they must be set down to operate and thus suffer the same problem of not being usable and portable at the same time. They can be carried with one hand and used with the other, thus allowing for ambulatory use. They are generally the size of a clipboard or notepad carried by many superintendents and are a good replacement for those devices due to the automation advantages of the computer, but they are still too big to be worn so that the user can move throughout the jobsite easily (up and down ladders) and have hands available for other uses (measuring manipulating objects to demonstrate technique or effect).

PDAs

The PDA has been accepted by many construction firms to aid the management of punch lists, safety inspections, and maintenance work. They can be thin or thick devices, but are often a combination of the two, having connectivity, but containing programs to operate even when out of range of WiFi or coverage. PDAs are durable, inexpensive, and very portable (being worn on a clip or carried in a pocket). The small screen size and limited ability to quickly enter data are the drawbacks of this device.

Smart phones

A smart phone is basically a mobile phone
Mobile phone
A mobile phone is a device which can make and receive telephone calls over a radio link whilst moving around a wide geographic area. It does so by connecting to a cellular network provided by a mobile network operator...

 and PDA combined into one IA. Other functionalities such as digital camera and voice recorder are common. Data entry, like with the PDA, is by stylus
Stylus (computing)
In computing, a stylus is a small pen-shaped instrument that is used to input commands to a computer screen, mobile device or graphics tablet...

 or keypad and cumbersome. Many have web browsing capabilities but the small screen size diminishes the utility of this function to viewing email
Email
Electronic mail, commonly known as email or e-mail, is a method of exchanging digital messages from an author to one or more recipients. Modern email operates across the Internet or other computer networks. Some early email systems required that the author and the recipient both be online at the...

, weather reports, or some web content. Both PDA and smart phones have calendars, task lists, and phone lists, but they are useful to superintendents when coupled with the phone functions as is the case with the latter. opular devices include the Blackberry and Treo
Treo
The Palm Treo is a line of smartphones originally developed by Handspring, which was bought by Palm, Inc. They are now manufactured and maintained by Palm, Inc. Treos have a number of integrated features such as the ability to check the calendar while talking on the phone, dial directly from a...

, the pocket pc, Iphone and Droid all are popular because of their web/email abilities and ease of use.

Cameras and peripherals

Digital cameras are often included in smart phones and PDAs, but their resolution is lower than the dedicated camera device. Most are not truly IA because they do not readily communicate with other devices or process information. Most brands share information by USB or flash memory card
Memory card
A memory card or flash card is an electronic flash memory data storage device used for storing digital information. They are commonly used in many electronic devices, including digital cameras, mobile phones, laptop computers, MP3 players, and video game consoles...

 which is removed from the camera and inserted in complementary devices (most PDAs accept these cards). Other methods, such as Infrared Communications
Infrared
Infrared light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength longer than that of visible light, measured from the nominal edge of visible red light at 0.74 micrometres , and extending conventionally to 300 µm...

 or Bluetooth are also available.

Software availability

A wide variety of software applications for each of the devices listed above are available. The user must determine system requirements and then ensure that software is available to perform the needed functions on a specific device.

Input/output features of IAs

Some IAs (such as the total station
Total station
A total station is an electronic/optical instrument used in modern surveying. The total station is an electronic theodolite integrated with an electronic distance meter to read slope distances from the instrument to a particular point....

) are made specifically for construction use, but they are for very specific applications and will not be considered here as the purpose of this article concerns general construction site management. Traditional input and output methods of keyboard, mouse, and screen are not suitable for the portable IA due to size constraints. These features are very important and must be considered.

Input methods

Data, queries
Query language
Query languages are computer languages used to make queries into databases and information systems.Broadly, query languages can be classified according to whether they are database query languages or information retrieval query languages...

, commands, or responses must be entered into the computer through some sort of interface. Following are some of the methods useful in portable IAs.

Touch screen

The touch screen and stylus
Stylus (computing)
In computing, a stylus is a small pen-shaped instrument that is used to input commands to a computer screen, mobile device or graphics tablet...

 is effective for construction applications as it allows handwriting recognition
Handwriting recognition
Handwriting recognition is the ability of a computer to receive and interpret intelligible handwritten input from sources such as paper documents, photographs, touch-screens and other devices. The image of the written text may be sensed "off line" from a piece of paper by optical scanning or...

 for those who do not feel comfortable with keyboards or the small size of keyboards on portable IAs. They are also free hand entry so that the user can sketch and draw notes and measurements directly onto the screen. The digital image of the sketch can be transmitted to others or converted to another format after uploading to a printer
Computer printer
In computing, a printer is a peripheral which produces a text or graphics of documents stored in electronic form, usually on physical print media such as paper or transparencies. Many printers are primarily used as local peripherals, and are attached by a printer cable or, in most new printers, a...

 or other computer.

Key pad

These devices are the standard entry method for phones and easy to understand but are a slow means for alphanumeric data entry. They may be suitable for numeric entry into data fields
Field (computer science)
In computer science, data that has several parts can be divided into fields. Relational databases arrange data as sets of database records, also called rows. Each record consists of several fields; the fields of all records form the columns....

. The user enters numbers on the keypad in response to prompts on the IA screen so this method is only suitable for entry of quantifiable standard information.

Voice/speech recognition

Voice Recognition is the ability to respond to verbal commands. Speech recognition refers to the capacity of the IA to convert voice entry into data. Both have been difficult to use in many construction applications due to ambient noise, construction jargon
Jargon
Jargon is terminology which is especially defined in relationship to a specific activity, profession, group, or event. The philosophe Condillac observed in 1782 that "Every science requires a special language because every science has its own ideas." As a rationalist member of the Enlightenment he...

 which varies by region, trade, and company, and because of speech patterns of the individual user. This method is slower than keyboard entry for the experienced user.

Screen

The touch screen is the standard display method for tablet PC and smaller IAs. Color may or may not be important to the user but can be an aid in directing the user. The screen size is perhaps the most important consideration. Organization of the screen is challenging on the small screen and the user should be considered when designing the interface. See section 2.2 and 2.3 in Ben Shneiderman
Ben Shneiderman
Ben Shneiderman is an American computer scientist, and professor for Computer Science at the Human-Computer Interaction Laboratory at the University of Maryland, College Park...

's "Designing the user interface" (ISBN 0-321-19786-0) concerning design of the interface.

Voice

Voice or tonal output from the IA can be effective as a reminder, warning, or indication of action performed, but tends to be irritating to the user if it is the principal method of interaction. Verbal output is slower than viewing the information and it is difficult for a person to pay attention to and understand information. Systems such as JAWS screen reader
JAWS (screen reader)
JAWS is a computer screen reader program in Microsoft Windows that allows blind and visually impaired users to read the screen either with a text-to-speech output or by a Refreshable Braille display....

 for the visually impaired do exist, but are not practical for construction site users and application. See Shneiderman section 9.4 (ISBN 0-321-19786-0).

Future possibilities

Eyetap
Eyetap
An EyeTap is a device that is worn in front of the eye that acts as a camera to record the scene available to the eye as well as a display to superimpose a computer-generated imagery on the original scene available to the eye....

 is a technology being developed that may have construction applications in the future. It allows the user to receive input from the computer superimposed over the scene in view. A diptych screen
Diptych
A diptych di "two" + ptychē "fold") is any object with two flat plates attached at a hinge. Devices of this form were quite popular in the ancient world, wax tablets being coated with wax on inner faces, for recording notes and for measuring time and direction.In Late Antiquity, ivory diptychs with...

 may be utilized to increase overall screen size and input area. Other 'Star Trek
Star Trek
Star Trek is an American science fiction entertainment franchise created by Gene Roddenberry. The core of Star Trek is its six television series: The Original Series, The Animated Series, The Next Generation, Deep Space Nine, Voyager, and Enterprise...

' devices and methods are being developed but the usable products have yet to be 'beamed down' to planet Earth.

Usability

The section on transparency in this article discusses some requirements for usability. Before implementing a system, a study on how it will add value to the user must be done. Having more data from the field is not directly beneficial to the site superintended. Reducing the time it takes to do 'paperwork' is valued. Sending an image taken from the IA camera directly to an architect for clarification does save time and effort and will be valued by the user.

Training

The system and device should be designed such that it encourages experimentation and usage. Immediate response to input and adaptability based on level of experience are better than sitting through a training seminar to get a few dry donuts. Training is best accomplished by showing and encouraging use. A 'guru' or user expert within the company may be best way to resolve questions and provide answers to questions and concerns. See 'The social life of information' (need reference).

Scalability and continual change

Technologies will evolve and the user will be facing new challenges with each change. It is usually wiser to adopt a small system that works and then later add features. This gradual adoption reduces anxiety and increases acceptance and use. This work by Linda V. Orr discusses methods to reduce anxiety for new computer users.

Integration of systems

Consideration should be given to ensure that IA devices and different software packages communicate with each other so that information is not lost or re-entry is not required by the user. Users do not always know or care what software is being used or which database is being accessed and do not understand why they must enter the same information again. For example, once the date has been entered, the user will be frustrated to be prompted to enter it again during the same session. Taking this further, the user may be frustrated to have to enter a date since there is a calendar function on the IA being used.

See also

  • Human-Computer Interaction
  • Lean manufacturing
    Lean manufacturing
    Lean manufacturing, lean enterprise, or lean production, often simply, "Lean," is a production practice that considers the expenditure of resources for any goal other than the creation of value for the end customer to be wasteful, and thus a target for elimination...

     - especially waste reduction in management practices.
  • Mobile computing
    Mobile computing
    Mobile computing is a form of human–computer interaction by which a computer is expected to be transported during normal usage. Mobile computing has three aspects: mobile communication, mobile hardware, and mobile software...

  • Object-oriented analysis and design
    Object-oriented analysis and design
    Object-oriented analysis and design is a software engineering approach that models a system as a group of interacting objects. Each object represents some entity of interest in the system being modeled, and is characterised by its class, its state , and its behavior...

  • Palmtop
  • Portable
    Portable
    Portable may refer to:* Portable building, a manufactured structure that is built off site and moved in upon completion of site and utility work...

  • Portable computer
    Portable computer
    A portable computer is a computer that is designed to be moved from one place to another and includes a display and keyboard. Portable computers, by their nature, are generally microcomputers. Portable computers, because of their size, are also commonly known as 'Lunchbox' or 'Luggable' computers...

  • Wearable computer
    Wearable computer
    Wearable computers are miniature electronic devices that are worn by the bearer under, with or on top of clothing. This class of wearable technology has been developed for general or special purpose information technologies and media development...


External links

The source of this article is wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.  The text of this article is licensed under the GFDL.
 
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