Close to nature forestry
Encyclopedia
Close to nature forestry is a theory and practice that takes the forest as an ecosystem and manages
it as such. It is based in reduced human intervention, that should be directed to accelerate the processes that nature would do by itself more slowly. It aims at overcoming the divorce between forestalist and ecologist management systems of forest. As an important consequence, it concludes that if properly applied, it would render the segregation of forest lands into "productive" and "reserves" or national parks unnecessary.
The Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Naturgemässe Waldwirtschaft (ANW) was established in Germany in 1950. In recent years this association has increased a lot its membership. The main reasons being the increase of ecological consciousness, the growing demand for forest products or services other than wood, the damages suffered by regular forest stands, the forest death fear.
Because of a 1948 forest law, Slovenia
has many forests managed according the principles of close to nature forestry. In 1989 ANW promoted a meeting at Robanov Kot
, in the Julian Alps
, and the ProSilva organization was created, with representatives of 10 countries. At present the organization headquarters are in the French region of Alsace
.
North America
In the United States professor Thom McEvoy has published the book Positive Impact Forestry, that recommends forestry practices similar to those of the "close to nature" movement. He thinks that the precursors of this type of forestry are to be found in Europe, mainly in Germany, and particularly makes mention of Heinrich Cotta
, and his famous Cotta's Preface, that highlighted the importance that the study and understanding of nature should have for the foresters. As a more immediate precursor he makes reference to American forester
and ecologist Aldo Leopold
.
The Ecoforestry Institute
consists on educational, non profit and non governmental organizations operating in US and Canada. They propose a forestry based on ecological principles, very similar to those of Pro Silva.
, biodiversity
, recreational, aesthetics, and water management. The human action has the object of accelerating natural processes, but not substitute them.
and biodiversity
promotion. It provides a better soil
protection, since there is a permanent tree cover.
McEvoy considers that in spite of being the most close to nature system, it is difficult to implement, and proposes to use the high regular forest model, in which all trees are of the same age/size, but recommends using a regeneration system
with a generous cover, to avoid soil erosion, and prevent excessive light entrance, that would promote the growth of a potent understorey.
The Ecoforestry Institute
, similarly to Pro Silva, recommends multi-aged and multi-species forests.
, or the growing of epicormic shoots
. It has to be directed to favor the trees that show good prospect for the future. The operations have to be done in a way that will avoid soil compaction or damage to the trees that will remain standing.
or introduced species
may be used. Whenever a forester decides to use a species that is not native, he does it because he thinks that there are silvicultural
advantages linked to this choice, be it the wood quality, easy of management, adaption to the climatic conditions, shorter production delay, etc. It may be that there is information available about the behavior of this species in the habitat, or the forester is ready to make a trial.
From the ecological point of view, the use of introduced species is considered as a threat. A big risk is incurred if the introduced species is invasive
, because it will displace local species, and result in a reduction of biodiversity
, a condition also to be expected if great extensions are forested using introduced species.
Professor McEvoy is very clear and strict: introduced species can not be used at all when working in a close to nature forestry system. Pro Silva makes some distinctions, based on species and conditions. Natural forest systems are to be preserved, but the enrichment with certain introduced species may be positive, depending on circumstances.
Pro Silva recommendations
fauna
, be it domesticated or wild, acts on tree seedlings and small trees. In high regular forests, the regeneration periods are chosen by the forester, and therefore it is possible to establish some control over fauna action, particularly domesticated fauna, avoiding grazing during regeneration. The un-even aged forest is continuously regenerating, and therefore it is difficult to make it compatible with grazing, and does not admit a high density of wild herbivore fauna. The pressure of herbivore fauna, mainly cervids, in some European forests, has reached an intensity that is threatening the practice of close to nature forestry.
, but the reverse does not apply. These are some of the distinctions between both systems.
Forest management
200px|thumb|right|[[Sustainable development|Sustainable]] forest management carried out by [[Complejo Forestal y Maderero Panguipulli|Complejo Panguipulli]] has contributed to the preservation of the forested landscape around [[Neltume]], a sawmill town in Chile...
it as such. It is based in reduced human intervention, that should be directed to accelerate the processes that nature would do by itself more slowly. It aims at overcoming the divorce between forestalist and ecologist management systems of forest. As an important consequence, it concludes that if properly applied, it would render the segregation of forest lands into "productive" and "reserves" or national parks unnecessary.
History
EuropeThe Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Naturgemässe Waldwirtschaft (ANW) was established in Germany in 1950. In recent years this association has increased a lot its membership. The main reasons being the increase of ecological consciousness, the growing demand for forest products or services other than wood, the damages suffered by regular forest stands, the forest death fear.
Because of a 1948 forest law, Slovenia
Slovenia
Slovenia , officially the Republic of Slovenia , is a country in Central and Southeastern Europe touching the Alps and bordering the Mediterranean. Slovenia borders Italy to the west, Croatia to the south and east, Hungary to the northeast, and Austria to the north, and also has a small portion of...
has many forests managed according the principles of close to nature forestry. In 1989 ANW promoted a meeting at Robanov Kot
Robanov Kot
Robanov Kot is a dispersed settlement in the Municipality of Solčava in northern Slovenia. Traditionally the area belonged to the region of Styria and is now included in the Savinja statistical region.-External links:*...
, in the Julian Alps
Julian Alps
The Julian Alps are a mountain range of the Southern Limestone Alps that stretches from northeastern Italy to Slovenia, where they rise to 2,864 m at Mount Triglav. They are named after Julius Caesar, who founded the municipium of Cividale del Friuli at the foot of the mountains...
, and the ProSilva organization was created, with representatives of 10 countries. At present the organization headquarters are in the French region of Alsace
Alsace
Alsace is the fifth-smallest of the 27 regions of France in land area , and the smallest in metropolitan France. It is also the seventh-most densely populated region in France and third most densely populated region in metropolitan France, with ca. 220 inhabitants per km²...
.
North America
In the United States professor Thom McEvoy has published the book Positive Impact Forestry, that recommends forestry practices similar to those of the "close to nature" movement. He thinks that the precursors of this type of forestry are to be found in Europe, mainly in Germany, and particularly makes mention of Heinrich Cotta
Heinrich Cotta
Johann Heinrich Cotta was a German silviculturist who was a native of Kleine Zillbach, near Wasungen, Thuringia. He was the father of geologist Bernhard von Cotta ....
, and his famous Cotta's Preface, that highlighted the importance that the study and understanding of nature should have for the foresters. As a more immediate precursor he makes reference to American forester
Forester
250px|thumb|right|Foresters of [[Southern University of Chile|UACh]] in the [[Valdivian forest]]s of San Pablo de Tregua, ChileA forester is a person who practices forestry, the science, art, and profession of managing forests. Foresters engage in a broad range of activities including timber...
and ecologist Aldo Leopold
Aldo Leopold
Aldo Leopold was an American author, scientist, ecologist, forester, and environmentalist. He was a professor at the University of Wisconsin and is best known for his book A Sand County Almanac , which has sold over two million copies...
.
The Ecoforestry Institute
Ecoforestry
Ecoforestry has been defined as selection forestry or restoration forestry. The main idea of Ecoforestry is to maintain or restore the forest to standards where the forest may still be harvested for products on a sustainable basis.. Ecoforestry is forestry that emphasizes holistic practices which...
consists on educational, non profit and non governmental organizations operating in US and Canada. They propose a forestry based on ecological principles, very similar to those of Pro Silva.
Forest management/ecosystem management
The close to nature approach intends to bridge the discrepancies, or even antagonisms between the silvicultural and ecological visions on the single reality of forest, considering the forest as an ecological system that produces wood. The sought after solution is not to segregate the territory into areas devoted to either forestry or ecology, but to integrate all functions.Objective
The management has to obtain healthy and stable forest systems that produce wood with a minimum human intervention. The products to obtain, other than wood, are fauna habitatsHabitat
* Habitat , a place where a species lives and grows*Human habitat, a place where humans live, work or play** Space habitat, a space station intended as a permanent settlement...
, biodiversity
Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome, or an entire planet. Biodiversity is a measure of the health of ecosystems. Biodiversity is in part a function of climate. In terrestrial habitats, tropical regions are typically rich whereas polar regions...
, recreational, aesthetics, and water management. The human action has the object of accelerating natural processes, but not substitute them.
Silvicultural models
ProSilva recommends to use the uneven-aged forest system, in which the ages, and consequently sizes, of trees in a forest are different. It has the advantage to offer a stable structure regarding natural disasters and plagues, and is very adequate for fauna habitatHabitat
* Habitat , a place where a species lives and grows*Human habitat, a place where humans live, work or play** Space habitat, a space station intended as a permanent settlement...
and biodiversity
Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome, or an entire planet. Biodiversity is a measure of the health of ecosystems. Biodiversity is in part a function of climate. In terrestrial habitats, tropical regions are typically rich whereas polar regions...
promotion. It provides a better soil
Soil
Soil is a natural body consisting of layers of mineral constituents of variable thicknesses, which differ from the parent materials in their morphological, physical, chemical, and mineralogical characteristics...
protection, since there is a permanent tree cover.
McEvoy considers that in spite of being the most close to nature system, it is difficult to implement, and proposes to use the high regular forest model, in which all trees are of the same age/size, but recommends using a regeneration system
Silviculture
Silviculture is the practice of controlling the establishment, growth, composition, health, and quality of forests to meet diverse needs and values. The name comes from the Latin silvi- + culture...
with a generous cover, to avoid soil erosion, and prevent excessive light entrance, that would promote the growth of a potent understorey.
The Ecoforestry Institute
Ecoforestry
Ecoforestry has been defined as selection forestry or restoration forestry. The main idea of Ecoforestry is to maintain or restore the forest to standards where the forest may still be harvested for products on a sustainable basis.. Ecoforestry is forestry that emphasizes holistic practices which...
, similarly to Pro Silva, recommends multi-aged and multi-species forests.
Recommended practices
Proposed thinning frequency is about ten years, and intensity low, in order to limit the ingress of excessive light, that could promote too much understoryUnderstory
Understory is the term for the area of a forest which grows at the lowest height level below the forest canopy. Plants in the understory consist of a mixture of seedlings and saplings of canopy trees together with understory shrubs and herbs...
, or the growing of epicormic shoots
Epicormic shoot
An epicormic shoot is a shoot growing from an epicormic bud which lies underneath the bark of a trunk, stem, or branch of a plant.-Epicormic buds:...
. It has to be directed to favor the trees that show good prospect for the future. The operations have to be done in a way that will avoid soil compaction or damage to the trees that will remain standing.
Native/introduced species
When trees are planted by men, either nativeIndigenous (ecology)
In biogeography, a species is defined as native to a given region or ecosystem if its presence in that region is the result of only natural processes, with no human intervention. Every natural organism has its own natural range of distribution in which it is regarded as native...
or introduced species
Introduced species
An introduced species — or neozoon, alien, exotic, non-indigenous, or non-native species, or simply an introduction, is a species living outside its indigenous or native distributional range, and has arrived in an ecosystem or plant community by human activity, either deliberate or accidental...
may be used. Whenever a forester decides to use a species that is not native, he does it because he thinks that there are silvicultural
Silviculture
Silviculture is the practice of controlling the establishment, growth, composition, health, and quality of forests to meet diverse needs and values. The name comes from the Latin silvi- + culture...
advantages linked to this choice, be it the wood quality, easy of management, adaption to the climatic conditions, shorter production delay, etc. It may be that there is information available about the behavior of this species in the habitat, or the forester is ready to make a trial.
From the ecological point of view, the use of introduced species is considered as a threat. A big risk is incurred if the introduced species is invasive
Invasive species
"Invasive species", or invasive exotics, is a nomenclature term and categorization phrase used for flora and fauna, and for specific restoration-preservation processes in native habitats, with several definitions....
, because it will displace local species, and result in a reduction of biodiversity
Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome, or an entire planet. Biodiversity is a measure of the health of ecosystems. Biodiversity is in part a function of climate. In terrestrial habitats, tropical regions are typically rich whereas polar regions...
, a condition also to be expected if great extensions are forested using introduced species.
Professor McEvoy is very clear and strict: introduced species can not be used at all when working in a close to nature forestry system. Pro Silva makes some distinctions, based on species and conditions. Natural forest systems are to be preserved, but the enrichment with certain introduced species may be positive, depending on circumstances.
Pro Silva recommendations
- As a general rule, the use of native species is to be considered as a best practiceBest practiceA best practice is a method or technique that has consistently shown results superior to those achieved with other means, and that is used as a benchmark...
. - The use of introduced species is justified in case of degraded habitats, in which the native species can not grow adequately.
- The non existence of native species of commercial value may also justify the use of introduced species.
- Whenever using introduced species, precautions are to be taken: they have to be non-invasive, be in a good sanitary condition, mix well with local forest species, and should not be planted in great extensions.
Herbivore fauna management
The herbivoreHerbivore
Herbivores are organisms that are anatomically and physiologically adapted to eat plant-based foods. Herbivory is a form of consumption in which an organism principally eats autotrophs such as plants, algae and photosynthesizing bacteria. More generally, organisms that feed on autotrophs in...
fauna
Fauna
Fauna or faunæ is all of the animal life of any particular region or time. The corresponding term for plants is flora.Zoologists and paleontologists use fauna to refer to a typical collection of animals found in a specific time or place, e.g. the "Sonoran Desert fauna" or the "Burgess shale fauna"...
, be it domesticated or wild, acts on tree seedlings and small trees. In high regular forests, the regeneration periods are chosen by the forester, and therefore it is possible to establish some control over fauna action, particularly domesticated fauna, avoiding grazing during regeneration. The un-even aged forest is continuously regenerating, and therefore it is difficult to make it compatible with grazing, and does not admit a high density of wild herbivore fauna. The pressure of herbivore fauna, mainly cervids, in some European forests, has reached an intensity that is threatening the practice of close to nature forestry.
Economic aspects
A progressive diminution of forestry economic profitability has been produced in developed countries, starting from last years of the 20th century. This has been the result of lower lumber prices and higher operating costs. As a result of less human intervention, the close to nature forestry has lower costs. Also, it encourages the evolution of forests toward higher ecologic and landscape value structures. This is in demand by society, and consequently should, and may be will have and economic reward.Close to nature forestry/sustanable forestry
Close to nature forestry is a sustanable forestrySustainable forest management
Sustainable forest management is the management of forests according to the principles of sustainable development. Sustainable forest management uses very broad social, economic and environmental goals...
, but the reverse does not apply. These are some of the distinctions between both systems.
- Sustanable forestry tries to preserve forests for the future, close to nature forestry aims to improve them.
- Sustanable forestry seeks a balance between competing interests, close to nature forestry integrates muttually interacting interests.
- Sustanable forestry aims to restrain forestry practice in order to preserve ecological values, close to nature forestry uses ecological principles to promote forestry results.