Century of humiliation
Encyclopedia
The century of humiliation , also referred to as the century of national humiliation, the hundred years of humiliation, and similar permutations. Starting with the rise of modern nationalism in the 1920s, Guomindang
and Communist propagandists and historians used these concepts to characterize the period of subjugation China suffered under imperialism
, both Western
and Japanese.
and the widespread addiction and political unraveling of China that followed.
Other major events cited as part of the Century of humiliation are, the unequal treaties of Whampoa
and Aigun
, the Taiping Rebellion
, the Second Opium War
and the sacking of the Old Summer Palace
, the Sino-French War
, and the First Sino-Japanese War
, and the British invasion of Tibet. In this period, China lost all the wars it fought and had to give major concessions to the great power
s in the subsequent treaties.
And continued into the 20th Century with the Twenty-One Demands
by Japan during WWI and the Second Sino-Japanese War
during WWII.
It is generally considered to have ended with the expulsion of foreign powers from mainland China after World War II, and the establishment of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 1949. Some commentators consider the century to have concluded with the reunification of Hong Kong
and Macau
with the PRC, ending foreign occupation of Chinese soil. Others go further to say that the century will not end until Taiwan
is reunified
with the mainland. Also note that some foreign "humiliations", such as the Amur Annexation
, have not been undone, but they have been generally accepted by the Chinese people.
. It has colored Chinese perceptions of incidents like the US bombing of the People's Republic of China embassy in Belgrade, the Hainan Island incident
, and European and American protests for Tibetan independence along the 2008 Beijing Olympics torch relay
.
during the Boxer Rebellion
. In addition, Elliott questioned the claim that Chinese society was traumatized by the western victories. Many Chinese peasants (90% of the population at that time) living outside the concessions continued about their daily lives which were not disrupted, and did not feel any humiliation when defeated. She thinks it was the foreigners who were angry that they could not get the Chinese to feel defeated or humiliated.
Kuomintang
The Kuomintang of China , sometimes romanized as Guomindang via the Pinyin transcription system or GMD for short, and translated as the Chinese Nationalist Party is a founding and ruling political party of the Republic of China . Its guiding ideology is the Three Principles of the People, espoused...
and Communist propagandists and historians used these concepts to characterize the period of subjugation China suffered under imperialism
Imperialism
Imperialism, as defined by Dictionary of Human Geography, is "the creation and/or maintenance of an unequal economic, cultural, and territorial relationships, usually between states and often in the form of an empire, based on domination and subordination." The imperialism of the last 500 years,...
, both Western
Western world
The Western world, also known as the West and the Occident , is a term referring to the countries of Western Europe , the countries of the Americas, as well all countries of Northern and Central Europe, Australia and New Zealand...
and Japanese.
History
The beginning of the century is usually dated to the mid-19th century, on the eve of the First Opium WarFirst Opium War
The First Anglo-Chinese War , known popularly as the First Opium War or simply the Opium War, was fought between the United Kingdom and the Qing Dynasty of China over their conflicting viewpoints on diplomatic relations, trade, and the administration of justice...
and the widespread addiction and political unraveling of China that followed.
Other major events cited as part of the Century of humiliation are, the unequal treaties of Whampoa
Treaty of Whampoa
The Treaty of Whampoa was a commercial treaty between France and China, which was signed by Théodore de Lagrené and Qiying on October 24, 1844.-Terms:...
and Aigun
Treaty of Aigun
The Treaty of Aigun was a 1858 treaty between the Russian Empire, and the empire of the Qing Dynasty, the sinicized-Manchu rulers of China, that established much of the modern border between the Russian Far East and Manchuria , which is now known as Northeast China...
, the Taiping Rebellion
Taiping Rebellion
The Taiping Rebellion was a widespread civil war in southern China from 1850 to 1864, led by heterodox Christian convert Hong Xiuquan, who, having received visions, maintained that he was the younger brother of Jesus Christ, against the ruling Manchu-led Qing Dynasty...
, the Second Opium War
Second Opium War
The Second Opium War, the Second Anglo-Chinese War, the Second China War, the Arrow War, or the Anglo-French expedition to China, was a war pitting the British Empire and the Second French Empire against the Qing Dynasty of China, lasting from 1856 to 1860...
and the sacking of the Old Summer Palace
Old Summer Palace
The Old Summer Palace, known in China as Yuan Ming Yuan , and originally called the Imperial Gardens, was a complex of palaces and gardens in Beijing...
, the Sino-French War
Sino-French War
The Sino–French War was a limited conflict fought between August 1884 and April 1885 to decide whether France should replace China in control of Tonkin . As the French achieved their war aims, they are usually considered to have won the war...
, and the First Sino-Japanese War
First Sino-Japanese War
The First Sino-Japanese War was fought between Qing Dynasty China and Meiji Japan, primarily over control of Korea...
, and the British invasion of Tibet. In this period, China lost all the wars it fought and had to give major concessions to the great power
Great power
A great power is a nation or state that has the ability to exert its influence on a global scale. Great powers characteristically possess military and economic strength and diplomatic and cultural influence which may cause small powers to consider the opinions of great powers before taking actions...
s in the subsequent treaties.
And continued into the 20th Century with the Twenty-One Demands
Twenty-One Demands
The ' were a set of demands made by the Empire of Japan under Prime Minister Ōkuma Shigenobu sent to the nominal government of the Republic of China on January 18, 1915, resulting in two treaties with Japan on May 25, 1915.- Background :...
by Japan during WWI and the Second Sino-Japanese War
Second Sino-Japanese War
The Second Sino-Japanese War was a military conflict fought primarily between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan. From 1937 to 1941, China fought Japan with some economic help from Germany , the Soviet Union and the United States...
during WWII.
It is generally considered to have ended with the expulsion of foreign powers from mainland China after World War II, and the establishment of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 1949. Some commentators consider the century to have concluded with the reunification of Hong Kong
Hong Kong
Hong Kong is one of two Special Administrative Regions of the People's Republic of China , the other being Macau. A city-state situated on China's south coast and enclosed by the Pearl River Delta and South China Sea, it is renowned for its expansive skyline and deep natural harbour...
and Macau
Macau
Macau , also spelled Macao , is, along with Hong Kong, one of the two special administrative regions of the People's Republic of China...
with the PRC, ending foreign occupation of Chinese soil. Others go further to say that the century will not end until Taiwan
Republic of China
The Republic of China , commonly known as Taiwan , is a unitary sovereign state located in East Asia. Originally based in mainland China, the Republic of China currently governs the island of Taiwan , which forms over 99% of its current territory, as well as Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and other minor...
is reunified
Chinese reunification
Chinese reunification refers to the bringing together of all of the territories controlled by the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China under a single political entity...
with the mainland. Also note that some foreign "humiliations", such as the Amur Annexation
Amur Annexation
The Amur Annexation refers to the annexation of the southeast corner of Siberia by Russia from China in 1858–60. The two areas involved are the Priamurye between the Amur River and the Stanovoy Range to the north and the Primorye which runs down the coast from the Amur mouth to the Korean border...
, have not been undone, but they have been generally accepted by the Chinese people.
Implications
As a result of the Century of humiliation and the Chinese Communist Party's historiography "sovereignty and integrity of [Chinese] territory" is a major force in Chinese nationalismChinese nationalism
Chinese nationalism , sometimes synonymous with Chinese patriotism refers to cultural, historiographical, and political theories, movements and beliefs that assert the idea of a cohesive, unified Chinese people and culture in a unified country known as China...
. It has colored Chinese perceptions of incidents like the US bombing of the People's Republic of China embassy in Belgrade, the Hainan Island incident
Hainan Island incident
On April 1, 2001, a mid-air collision between a United States Navy EP-3E ARIES II signals intelligence aircraft and a People's Liberation Army Navy J-8II interceptor fighter jet resulted in an international dispute between the United States and the People's Republic of China called the Hainan...
, and European and American protests for Tibetan independence along the 2008 Beijing Olympics torch relay
2008 Summer Olympics torch relay
The 2008 Summer Olympics torch relay was run from March 24 until August 8, 2008, prior to the 2008 Summer Olympics, with the theme of "one world, one dream". Plans for the relay were announced on April 26, 2007, in Beijing, China...
.
Criticism
Jane E. Elliott has criticized the allegation that China refused to modernize or was unable to defeat western militaries. Her research suggests that this was a myth, and that China embarked on a massive military modernization in the late 1800s after several defeats, buying weapons from western countries and manufacturing their own at arsenals such as Hanyang ArsenalHanyang Arsenal
Hanyang Arsenal was one of the largest and oldest modern arsenals in Chinese history.-History:Originally known as the Hubei Arsenal, it was founded in 1891 by one of the Qing officials, Zhang Zhidong, who diverted funds from the Nanyang Fleet in Guangdong to build the arsenal. It cost about...
during the Boxer Rebellion
Boxer Rebellion
The Boxer Rebellion, also called the Boxer Uprising by some historians or the Righteous Harmony Society Movement in northern China, was a proto-nationalist movement by the "Righteous Harmony Society" , or "Righteous Fists of Harmony" or "Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists" , in China between...
. In addition, Elliott questioned the claim that Chinese society was traumatized by the western victories. Many Chinese peasants (90% of the population at that time) living outside the concessions continued about their daily lives which were not disrupted, and did not feel any humiliation when defeated. She thinks it was the foreigners who were angry that they could not get the Chinese to feel defeated or humiliated.